






rat 1i t+^;/;fr"l'>, ' I'' v-'r 








A CONCISE 



PEACTICAL GRAMMAR 



OF THE 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 



I 



EXERCISES 



ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 



By jf tAp.HAMPLIN, 

PROFESSOR IN WATERVILLE COLLEGE. 



^ 



NEW YORK: 

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 

200 Broadway. 

1850. 



I 






Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1850, by 

J. T. C HA M PLIN, 

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetta 



PREFACE. 



A NEW English Grammar is no rare thing 
in these days. Indeed, so many have aheady 
been published, that it would seem to be use- 
less, if not presumptuous, to add another to 
the list. But in this, as in other things, vari- 
ety- gives the public a better chance for selec- 
tion, and consequently, an opportunity of being 
better served, or, at least, better suited. If 
the present treatise shall not be found to be 
what is needed by the public, the author wiU 
most cheerfully submit to its being rejected. 
But if it shaU be thought to contain a more 
concise, more simple, more philosophical, and 
a better arranged and illustrated statement of 
the principles of English grammar, than most 
of the manuals in use, it will fully answer 
the expectations with which it is put forth. 



IV PREFACE. 

It would have been easy to have given it a 
greater show of learning, by tracing the forms 
and usages of the language from the Anglo- 
Saxon, and in kindred tongues ; but this would 
only have encumbered the book, without add- 
ing any thing to its value as a practical man- 
ual for schools. It is believed, that it will be 
found to contain all the valuable results de- 
rived from the historical view of the language, 
without the encumbrance of the materials them- 
selves. The book has not been prepared with- 
out the bestowment of much thought and la- 
bor, both upon its form and substance. It may 
be regarded as an attempt, as far as it goes, 
to give a thoroughly logical consistency to the 
materials of English grammar, by treating them 
according to the laws of thought. It is not, 
however, pretended that the plan has been car- 
ried out in all its details, but sufficiently so for 
ordinary purposes. At the same time, the laws 
of usage in the language have been strictly ad- 
hered to, and in all cases of difficult or doubt- 
ful usage, pains have been taken to illustrate 
the principles by examples from standard au- 
thors. 



PREFACE. V 

The general plan of the work is substan- 
tially the same as that adopted by the most 
eminent grammarians of the present day, in 
treating the grammar of other languages ; silch 
as Becker, Kiihner, Kritz, &c. But all unne- 4 
cessary novelties have been studiously avoided, 
and as Httle violence as possible done to estab- 
lished notions and methods. "While words are 
not treated as mere words, as in a dictionary, 
but in Etymology as parts of speech, and in 
Syntax as parts of sentences, still the ordinary 
rules for word-parsing are retained, as in other 
grammars. It treats the language analytically, 
without at all excluding attention to the agree- 
ment and government of particular words. As 
a subordinate exercise, and associated with 
analysis, parsing may be made highly useful; 
but alone, at least in our language, deficient as 
it is in inflection, it must be comparatively 
fruitless. The first and most important step 
towards understanding a piece of mechanism 
is, to take it to pieces, and examine its parts 
and connections; and this is precisely what is 
done with language by analysis. And though 
one who has done this may not always be able 



VI PREFACE. 



at once to put it together again, still he will 
surely be better able to do it than one who 
never took it to pieces, and has no knowledge 
of what its parts are. 



CONTENTS. 



PART I. 

ETYMOLOGY. 
INTRODUCTION. 

Historical View of the Language, § 1 

General Idea of Grammar, 2 

Thought and its Expression, 3 

CHAPTER I. 

ORTHOGRAPHY, OR LETTERS, SOUNDS, AND SYLLABLES. 
SECTION I. 

LETTERS AND THEIR SOUNDS. 

Classification of the Letters, 4 

Sounds of the Letters, 5 

§ SECTION II. 

SYLLABLES. 

The Length or Quantity of Syllables, .... 6 

Accent of Syllables, 7 

Diyision of Words into Syllables, 8 



Vm CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER II. 

ACCIDENCE, OR CHANGES IN WORDS. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Classes of Words, or Parts of Speech, 9 

Natxire of Inflection (or Changes) in Words, ... 10 

SECTION I. 

OF THE SUBSTANTIVE OR NOUN. 

Classes of Nouns, II 

Gender of Nouns, 12 

Number of Nouns, 13 

Cases of Nouns, 14 

Declension of Nouns, 15 

SECTION II. 

OF THE PRONOUN. 

Personal Pronouns, 16 

Demonstrative Pronouns, 17 

Relative and Interrogative Pronouns, . . . . 18 

Indefinite Pronouns, 19 

SECTION III. 

OF THE ADJECTIVE. 

Comparison of Adjectives, . ^ 20 

Numeral Adjectives, 21 



CONTENTS. IX 



SECTION IV. 



OF THE VERB. 



State Forms of the Verb (Voices), 22 

Time Forms of the Verb (Tenses), 23 

Mode Forms of the Verb (Mood or Mode), ... 24 

Number and Person of the Verb, 25 

Formation of the Tenses, 26 

Conjugation, . 27 

Ancient Conjugation, 28 

Modem Conjugation, 29 

Impersonal Verbs, 30 



SECTION V. 

UNINFLECTED WORDS, OR PARTICLES. 

Adverbs, 31 

Prepositions, 32 

Conjunctions, 33 

Interjections, 34 



SECTION VI. 



FORMATION OF WORDS. 



General Principles of Formation, 3.5 

Formation of Words by Suffixes (Derivation), ... 36 
Formation of Words by Composition, 37 



\ 



\ 



X CONTENTS. 

PART II. 
SYNTAX. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Parts of a Sentence and Different Kinds of Sentences, . 38 

3HAPTER I. 

SIMPLE SENTENCES. 
SECTION I. 

GENERAL TREATMENT OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 

Agreement of the Parts of a Sentence, 39 

Different Forms of tlie Predicate, 40 

I. State Forms (Voices). 
n. Time Forms (Tenses). 
ni. Mode Forms (Mood or Mode). 

SECTION II. 

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE WITH ITS SUBJECT MODIFIED. 

Classification of Attributives, 41 

Modification by Attributives, 42 



CONTENTS. 2a 

SECTION III. 

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE WITH ITS PREDICATE MODIFIED. 

Classification of Objects, 43 

Modification by a Direct Substantive Object, ... 44 
Modification by an Indirect Substantive Object, . . .45 
Modification by an Adverbial Object, .... 46 

Modification by the Infinitive and Participle (Verbal Object), 47 



CHAPTER II. 

COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

SECTION I. 

COORDINATE COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

Classification and Treatment of Coordinate Sentences, . 48 
SECTION II. 

SUBORDINATE COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

Nature and Classification of Subordinate Sentences, . . 49 

Substantive Sentences, 50 

Adjective Sentences, . 51 

Adverbial Sentences, 52 

I. Adverbial Sentences of Place. 
n. Adverbial Sentences of Time. 
m. Causal Adverbial Sentences. 
IV. Conditional Adverbial Sentences. 
V. Concessive Adverbial Sentences. 
VT. Adverbial Sentences of Comparison. 
Interrogative Sentences, 53 



xu 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER III. 



DISCOURSE. 



Direct and Indirect Discourse, 54 

Forms of Sentences in Discourse, 55 

Different Forms of expressing the same Idea, ... 56 
Arrangement of Words and Sentences, . . . .57 

Peculiar Usages and Constructions, 58 

Poetic Styles (Versification), 59 

Punctuation and Use of Capitals, 60 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



PART I. 

ETYMOLOGY. 



INTRODUCTION. 

§ 1. Historical View of the Language. 

Question. What is said of the early inhabitants of Britain and 
their conquest ? 

1. The earliest inhabitants of the British Isles known 
in history are supposed to have belonged to the Celtic 
race. Britain was first invaded by the Romans, under 
Julius Csesar, B. C. 55. It was gradually subdued by 
them, and held in subjection nearly five hundred years. 

Q, Who conqnered the Britons after the Eomans left, and when ? 

2. Not long after the Romans abandoned the island, 
various Teutonic tribes, from the North of Germany, 
made a series of expeditions into the country, extend- 
ing through a period of about a hundred years, which 
ended in its complete subjugation. These German 



14 ETYMOLOGY. 

tribes are known under the general name of Anglo- 
Saxons^ and their language is called the Anglo-Saxon 
Language, 

Q. What resulted from the Anglo-Saxon conquest? 

3. The conquest of the island by the Anglo-Saxons 
was so complete, as nearly to obliterate all traces of 
Celtic and Roman institutions and language, and substi- 
tute their own in place of them. 

Q. What from the Norman conquest ? 

4. After the conquest of the island by the Normans, 
however, in A. D. 1066, the Anglo-Saxon language 
came under the influence of the corrupt Latin, or jRo- 
manz language, as used in France and other Continental 
states, and was gradually blended with it, and modified 
by it, till it assumed the form of the present English. 

Q. How many words are there in English, and how are they 
distributed ? 

5. The English language, in its present state, con- 
sists of about thirty -eight thousand words, of which 
twenty-three thousand are of Anglo-Saxon origin, and 
the rest mostly of Latin and Greek origin. 

Q. Which is the primitive element in English, and why 1 

6. In the combined elements which make up the 
English language, the Anglo-Saxon appears as the 
primitive element, since it furnishes nearly all the 
terms for expressing the objects and ideas of common 
life, while the terms of science, and of artificial and 
polite life, are chiefly of Latin and Greek origin. 



introduction. 15 

§ 2>. General Idea of Grammar. 

Q. What is Grammar 1 

1. Grammar is a collection of the rules according 
to which a language is spoken and written. 

Q. English Grammar? 

2. English Grammar, therefore, is a collection of 
the rules according to which the English language is 
spoken and written. 

Q. What two things does grammar relate to ? 

3. These rules relate either to the forms of the differ- 
ent classes of words employed in speech, or to the prin- 
ciples on which they are connected with each other in 
sentences, 

Q. What is Etymology ? 

4. The treatment of the formation and forms of 
words is called Etymology, 

Q. Syntax? 

5. The treatment of the principles for combining 
words into sentences is called Syntax, 

§ 3. Thought and its Expression. 

Q. How do we come by our ideas of objects ? 

1. Having powers of observation, perception, and re- 
flection, and living in close and constant connection 
with objects which force themselves upon our attention, 
we unavoidably acquire certain notions or ideas of these 
objects. 



16 ETYMOLOGY. 

Q. How can we communicate an idea to another? 

2. If now we wish to make known to another person 
any notion or idea which we have in our minds, we are 
under the necessity of employing some sign, or set of 
signs, in order to describe it. The signs employed for 
this purpose are called Words. 

Q. What were words originally, and how at length represented 1 

3. At first words were mere sounds, mutually recog- 
nized and understood by those between whom they were 
to serve as a medium of communication, and varying 
with the idea to be expressed. Afterwards each of these 
sounds was separated into its component parts, and rep- 
resented by certain characters, called Letters. 

Q. How many kinds of words are there ? 

4. Letters address themselves to the eye, as sounds 
do to the ear, so that words are either audible ox visible^ 
according as they are written or spoken. 

Q. How are articulate sounds formed 1 What are the organs 
of speech? 

5. The sounds of the human voice (called articulate 
sounds) are formed by the action of what are called 
the organs of speech upon the air (or breath) suddenly 
forced from the lungs (or breast) for that purpose. 
The organs of speech are the throaty palate, roof of 
the mouth, teeth, tongue, and lips. 

Q. What are the letters formed by the different organs called ? 
What are consonants ? What vowels ? 

Remark 1. The letters whose sounds are formed in the 
throat and back part of the mouth are called palatals or gut- 
turals (throat letters) ; those formed by the action of the tongue 



INTRODUCTION. IT 

upon the front part of the roof of the mouth and the teeth, 
Unguals (tongue letters) ; and those formed by the lips, or by 
placing the upper teeth upon the lower lip, labials (lip letters). 
The letters formed in each of these ways are called Conso- 
nants, But those formed without the exertion of any of the 
organs of speech, merely by a steady emission of the breath 
from the lungs, with sufficient force and for a sufficient length 
of time to make the sound distinct, are called Vowels. 

Q. How do letters convey the idea of a word to the mind ? 

6. Letters, though originally merely signs of certain • 
sounds, come by use, when combined into words, to be 
so associated (i. e. connected in the mind) with the ideas 
they represent, as to convey these ideas directly to the 
mind through the eye, as their sounds do through the ear. 

Q. What is a syllable ? 

7. In uttering words (except very short words) sev- 
eral successive efforts of the voice are made. The differ- 
ent portions thus uttered are called Syllables, A sylla- 
ble, then, is such a portion of a word as can be uttered 
by a single exertion of the organs of speech, or without 
any material change in their position or conformity. 

Q. What are the component parts of language ? 

8. Speech or language, then, is made up of words, 
words are made up of syllables, and syllables of letters. 

Q. What are words called, according to the number of their 
syllables, and what the different syllables ? 

Rem. 2. Words of one syllable are called monosyllables ; 
of two syllables, dissyllables; of three or more syllables, poly- 
syllables. — The last syllable of a word is called the ultimate ; 
the last but one, the penult^ and the last but two, the ante- 
penult. 

2 



18 ETYMOLOGY. 

CHAPTER I. 

ORTHOGRAPHY, OR LETTERS, SOUNDS, AND 
SYLLABLES. 

SECTION L 

LETTERS AND THEIR SOUNDS. 

§ 4. Classification of the Letters. 

Q. How many letters are there in the English alphabet ? 

1. The English language has as signs of its sounds 
the following twenty-six letters, called the Alphahet : — 
A, a; B,b; C, c ; D, d ; E, e ; F,f; G, g ; H, h ; 
I, i ; J, j ; K, k ; L, 1 ; M, m ; N, n ; O, o ; P, p ; 
Q,q; R,r; S, s ; T, t ; U,u; V,v, W,w; X,x; 
Y,y; Z,z. 

Q. What are the vowels, and what the other letters ? 

2. The vowels are a, e, t, o, % ; also w and ^, — ex- 
cept they stand before a vowel in the same syllable. 
The other letters are consonants. 

Q. What of the quantity of vowels ? 

3. The vowels are either short or long. The sign 
employed to indicate that a vowel is short is ", and to 
indicate that it is long "; as, bat, hate, 

Q. What are diphthongs, proper and improper ? 

4. The diphthongs are double vowel-sounds pro- 
nounced together in a syllable. Diphthongs are either 
proper or improper, according as both vowels are dis- 
tinctly sounded, or as the combined sound is the same 



ORTHOGRAPHY, 19 

as that of a single voweL Of the first class there are 
only 01 {oy) and ou {ow)^ while of the second there 
are some sixteen or eighteen different combinations. 
See § 5. 2, 

Q. Are the vowels of diphthongs ever pronounced separately, 
and how is this separation indicated in double vowels ? 

Rem. 1. The vowels of most of the diphthongs are pro- 
nounced separately in certain words ; as, ai in laity. When 
double vowels (ee, oo) are to be pronounced separately, it is 
generally indicated by two dots over the second vowel, or by 
a hyphen (or dash, -) between them ; as, preeminent, co-oper- 
ate, &c. 

Q. What is the first division of consonants ? 

5, The consonants are divided, first, according to the 
different organs of speech by which they are formed, 
into : — 

1) Gutturals (throat) : c, g^ h, j, k, r, x, ch, qu; 

2) Linguals (tongue) : d, I, n, s, t, y, z, th ; 

3) Labials (lips) : b, f, m^ p, w, v, phu 

Q. What the second ? 

6. Again, consonants are divided, according to the de- 
gree of exertion of the organs of speech in forming them, 
into : — 

1) Liquids (flowing easily from the mouth and easily 
combining with other consonants) : 1, m, n, r ; 

2) Aspirates (formed by a strong emission of the breath, 
but slightly affected by the organs) : h, w, y, (one for 
each organ) ; 

S) Mutes (i. e. letters formed by the greatest exertion 
of the organs of speech, so that they can be fully 
uttered only by the aid of a vowel) : b, c, d, f, g, j, k, 
p, s, t, v, ch, ph, th, qu. 



20 ETYMOLOGY. 

Q. What are the vocals and sph-ants ? 

7. The mutes, again, are divided into vocals and 
spirants^ according as the voice^ or only the hreath, 
is heard in their formation, as : — 
Vocals: b, d, j, g, v, th,* z, zh. 

Spirants : p, t, ch, k (c hard)^ f (ph), th,t s (c soft)^ sh. 

Q. What is said of the interchange of the vocals and spirants ? 

Rem. 2. The corresponding mutes in each of these pairs, 
taken perpendicularly, are called cognate mutes, and often 
pass into each other ; as, loaf, loai'es, &c. Besides, when 
any one of these vocals comes before a spirant, or a spirant 
before a vocal, the one that stands last is always pronounced 
like the first, and is often changed into the corresponding vo- 
cal or spirant, as the case requires ; as, plucA;-^ (instead of 
pluc^-^). The pairs which most frequently pass into each 
other, or are changed to correspond, are, p and b, f and v, s 
and z. 

Q. What of :c and g ? 

Rem. 3. X is a double consonant composed of cs,Jcs, or gs. 
Q is connected with k in sound, and, with the u which always 
follows it, has the sound ofkw. 

Exercise I. 

Classify, as above, the letters in the following words. 

Life, art, tune, fear, right, power, knowledge, fortune, 
virtue, rubies, honesty, prosperity, sound, voice, aisle, 
cow, peace, plenty, forest. 

Model. — Life: Z is a liquid; z is a vowel; ^ is a 
spirant, cognate to z? ; e is a vowel. 

* In thine, t In thin. 



orthography. 21 

^ 5. Sounds of the Letters.* 

Q. What are the sounds of a ? What of e ? What of i ? 
What of 1 What of u ? What of y ? 

1. Sounds of the vowels : — 
A has four principal sounds, as in the four following 

words: 1) fate (long), 2) fat (short), 3) father 

(grave), 4) fall (broad) ; 
E has four sounds, as in, 1) mete (long), 2) met (short), 

3) there (like the lengthened sound of a in fat) ^ 4) 

her (short and obtuse) ; 
/has four sounds, as in, 1) pine (long), 2) pin (short), 

3) machine (like long e), 4) fr (short and obtuse) ; 
O has five sounds, as in, 1) note (long), 2) not (short), 

3) move (long and close), 4) nor (broad, nearly like 

broad a), 5) son (like short u) ; 
[/"has five sounds, as in, 1) tube (long), 2) tub (short), 

2) full (intermediate), 4) rule (nearly like o in move)^ 

5) fur (short and obtuse) ; 
Y has all the sounds of i, except that in machine^ and 

always stands instead of i as a final letter. 

Q. What is the alphabetical sound of a vowel? What the 
obscure sound ? What variations of sounds in vowels ? 

Rem. 1. The firSt or long sound of each of these vowels 
is the one heard in naming them, and hence is called the 
alphabetical or name sound. In unaccented syllables, mostly 
at the end of words, each vowel has an indistinct or obscure 
sound, as in rival, fuel, ruin, actor, murmur, truly. Also in 



* This division, after getting the sounds of the simple vowels, 
should be passed over by the young beginner. 



22 ETYMOLOGY. 

certain words and before certain consonants, nearly every 
vowel has sounds differing slightly from those given above. 

Q. Which are strong and which weak sounds ? 
Rem. 2. Of the vow^s, «, o, and u are called strong, e, 
i, and 3/, weak sounds. 

Q. What is the sound of ce 1 What of at 1 What of au ? 
What of ea 1 What of ee ? What of ei ? What of eo ? What 
of eu ? What of ia 1 What of ie ? What of oa ? What of ce ? 
What of oi ? What of 00 1 What of om ? What of ua, ue, ui ? 

2. Sounds of the diphthongs, both proper and im- 
proper : — 

M is found only in words of Latin and Greek origin, 
and is sounded like simple e ; 

Ai is usually sounded like long a in fate^ as in pain^ 
hrain^ &c., but in a few words has the sound, 1) of 
short e, as in said^ 2) of short a, as in raillery^ 3) of 
long 1, as in aisZe, 4) in final unaccented syllables, 
nearly of short t, as in curtain ; 

Au {aw) is usually pronounced like broad a in hall^ but 
in laugh and draughty and some other words, it is pro- 
nounced like a in far ; 

Ea has five different sounds, arising principally from 
the predominance of the e or a sound in different 
words ; 1) nearly of e long, as in li'^Mr^ which is the 
most common sound, 2) of e short, as in head^ 3) of 
a long, as in Ireak^ 4) of a in jTar, as in hearty 5) when 
unaccented, an obscure sound, as in vengeance ; 

Ee is, with one or two exceptions, pronounced like 
long e ; 

Ei (ey) generally has the sound of long a, as in feint^ 
they ; but often the sound of long e, as in deceit^ key^ 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 23 

and of short e in heifer ; and in final unaccented syl- 
lables of short i, as in surfeit^ galleij ; 

Eo is pronounced like long o in yeoman^ and like long 
e in people ; like short e in jeopardy^ and a few other 
words. In final unaccented syllables it has an obscure 
sound, sometimes like w, sometimes like o, and some- 
times like i, as in dungeon^ puncheon^ pigeon ; 

Eu (ew) has the sound of u in mule or rule ; 

la in the endings mZ, ian^ and iard^ is generally sounded 
like ya^ as in filial (filyal). In a few words it has an 
obscure sound of short i, as in carriage^ marriage^ 
parliament ; 

le is generally sounded like long e, as in chief; but 
like long i in tie^ pie^ &c., and like short e in friend ; 

Oa has regularly the sound of long o, as in boat ; but in 
hroad^ abroad^ and groat^ it has the sound of broad a ; 

(E is found only in words derived from the Latin and 
Greek, and is sounded like e ; 

Oi {oy) is sounded very nearly like a in wor, or a in wa- 
ter ; or, otherwise, the o has the sound of o in wor, 
and this is followed by a slight sound of the i (3/), as 
in voice^ hoy ; 

Oo is commonly sounded like in move^ as in moon^ 
food ; but in a few words it has the sound of u in 
pull^ as in look^ and in a few others of long in note^ 
as in fioor^ door^ &c. ; 

Ou (ojv) generally sounds both vowels, as in loud^ now ; 
but it also has in different words nearly every sound 
of 0, w, and a; 

Ua^ we, ui. In these diphthongs either u is sounded like 
2^, or else one or the other of the letters is not sounded 
at all. 



24 ETYMOLOGY. 

Q. Wliat of e and i in final syllables 1 

Rem. 3. In the final syllables of words, e and i, in the 
diphthongs beginning with these letters, are usually sounded 
like y used as a consonant ; as, ocean (ocyan) , poniard (pon- 
yard), question (questyon), &c. 

Q. What are the triphthongs, and how sounded 1 
Rem. 4. The combinations eau, ieu (iew), are called triph- 
thongs (the union of three vowel- sounds), but they are all 
sounded like eu except the first, which, in French words, is 
sounded like o in note; as, beauty, adieu, view, hut flambeau 
(fiambo). Oeu is found only in manoeuvre, and has the sound 
of 00 in moon, and uoy only in buoy. 

Q. What is the sound of b ? What of c ? What of d ? What 
of/? What of ^1 What of ^1 What of yi What of /b? What 
of I ? What of m ? What of n 1 What of p ? What of gl 
What of r? What of si What of ^? What of vl What 
of m;? What of x'i What of ?/? What of z^i What of cA? 
What of ph ? What of th ? 

3. Sounds of the consonants : — 

B as in but^ tub; it is generally silent after m in the 
same syllable, as in cojnh, thumh^ &;c. ; 

C has a hard sound, like A:, before a, o, w, or a conso- 
nant, or at the end of a word ; but like s, before e, t, 
and y ; as, caAre, politic^ cider ; 

D as in 6?o^, cZwZZ, rot? ; 

JF as in Jife^ V^ff y but in of it has nearly the sound of v ; 

G has a soft sound, like j, before e, i, and i/, but in other 
cases it is hard ; as in go, gave., gum^ egg ; it is silent 
before m or n in the same syllable ; as, apophthegm, 
condign ; 

H is a simple breathing, as in have^ ah ; it is sometimes 
silent, as in hour ; also at the beginning of words 
after g, as in ghastly^ ghost ; 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 25 

J is a compound sound nearly equal to dzh^ as in jest ; 

K has a hard sound, as in kite^ oak ; it is silent before 
n in the same syllable, as in knoh ; 

L as in leg^ kill ; it is often silent, especially before k 
or m, as in chalky qualm ; 

M as in map^ cream ; it is silent before n in mnemon- 
ic^ and some other words ; 

N as in not^ none ; it is silent after I or m at the end of a 
word, as in kiln^ solemn ; 

P as in pin^ pip ; but it has the sound of h (see § 3. 7) 
in cupboard^ and is often silent, as in psalm^ psalter, 
pneumatics ; 

Q is always followed by w, with which it is pronounced 
like kw^ as in quilt ^ but sometimes nearly like k, as in 
conquer ; 

R as in row. fear ; 

S has a hissing sound, as in stone^ miss. But 5 final, pre- 
ceded by a vowel, a liquid, or by 5, ^, g, v, has the 
sound of 2, as in stones (stonez), halls, dogs, &c. ; 
it is silent in aisle, isle, corps, and a few other words ; 

T as in tip, neat ; 

V as in van, vain, rave ; 

W as in wax, will ; it is sometimes silent, as in torap, 
sword ; 

X is sounded like ks {cs) or gs, as in box, exalt ; 

Y, when a consonant, as in yet ; 

Z has two sounds, as in zeal, azure ; 

Ch is sounded nearly the same as k, as in chemist, or tsh, 
as in church, chain ; 

Ph is sounded like /, as in phantom, philosophy ; 

Th sharp, as in thin, or flat, as in thine. 



26 ETYMOLOGY. 

Q. What are the redundant letters, and why ? How are c and 
k used respectively ? 

Rem. 5. From this description of the sounds of the let- 
ters it appears that c, q, and os are redundant (or useless) let- 
ters, since all their sounds are expressed by 5 or A;. How- 
ever, as used, c, and not Jc, is placed before a, o, and w, or a 
consonant, and k, and not c, is generally placed at the end of 
a word. Before e, i, and y, k is used only when c (being in 
this situation pronounced like 5) would make the word, in 
some of its forms, sound like some other word beginning with 
s; as in kept (with c it would be confounded with sept). C is 
often placed before k, but k is never doubled, except in Scrip- 
ture proper names, as Habakkuk, 

£xercise II. 

Classify and form the sounds of each letter in the following 
words. 

Acorn, male, dumb, answer, apple, pall, awful, 
phlegm, land, prey, great, weight, nail, say, vein, devil, 
equator, sleep, thief, creak, deceive, grief, condemn, 
lime, pit, shire, virtue, every, mythology, sleight, guile, 
sot, psalm, vote, abhor, coat, hoe, though, mow, bound, 
floor, nut, full, purr, push, rule, town, island, one, 
enough, flood, cook, swoon, should, flew, feud, true, 
rejoice. 

Model. — Acorn : a is a vowel havmg its long 
sound (form it) ; c is a consonant and has its hard sound, 
like k (form it) ; is a vowel and has its broad sound 
(form it) ; r and n are consonants and have their usual 
sounds (form them). 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 27 

SECTION II. 

syllables. 

§ 6. The Length or Quantity of Syllables. 

Q. Upon what does the quantity of a syllable depend in Eng- 
lish? 

The quantity of a syllable, in English, depends upon 
whether its vowel-sound may be easily or naturally pro- 
tracted (i. e. lengthened out in pronunciation), rather 
than upon the actual time employed in pronouncing the 
whole syllable (consonants and all), as is the case in the 
Latin and Greek. Quantity, then, in English, is little 
more than a particular kind of sound given to the vow- 
els. We have the following general rules : — 

Q. What is the first rule of quantity ? 

1) A single vowel, followed by a single consonant, 
which is not itself followed by a vowel in the same 
syllable, is shoi^t ; but if this consonant is followed by 
a vowel in the same syllable, the preceding vowel is 
long ; as, fdt^ fctte^ met^ mete^ &c. 

Q. What the second ? 

2) All double vowels and diphthongs (both proper 
and improper) are long^ and all single vowels followed 
by two consonants in the same syllable are short; as, 
moon^ voice^ redd^ lewd;tdps^ egg^ &c. 

Q. What the third ? 

3) In poetry all accented syllables are arbitrarily 
considered long ; but in prose, only those accented syl- 
lables are long, which, in dividing a word into its sylla- 
bles, end in a vowel (see § 7). 



28 ETYMOLOGY. 



Exercise III. 



CHve the rules for the quantity of the syllables in each of these 
words. 

Cat, rate, sit, sin, fine, fly, fed, mete, feed, lot, wrote, 
for, mood, slur, pure, meat, gloat, joy, owl, new, rue, 
seize, wound, jibe, fruit, paid, feud, jolly, jovial, amus- 
ingly. 

Model. — Cat^ rate : cat is a short syllable, by the 
first part of Rule 1st, and rate long, by the second part 
of the same rule. 

§ 7. Accent of Syllables. 
Q. What is accent ? 

1. Accent is a stress of voice, or tone (marked thus ', 
when marked at all), either rising, falling, or protract- 
ed, placed on one or more syllables of a word in pro- 
nouncing it ; as, ty'rant^ arise, &c. 

Q. Upon what part of the word is the accent in English ? 

2. In English (with few exceptions), the principal 
accent falls upon the radical part of a word, and not 
upon its prefixes and endings (see § 35. 1) ; as, mdrk-et, 
worship. 

Q. Where is the principal accent in words 'i 

3. The principal accent is generally placed upon the 
penult of dissyllables, and the antepenult of polysylla- 
bles ; as, habit, philosophy. 

Q. How is the above rule to be considered, and what exceptions 
to it? 

Rem. 1. This rule has many exceptions, and can be con- 
sidered as expressing but little more than the general tendency 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 29 

of the language. The exceptions to it are most numerous 
in verbs, a large class of which are distinguished from their 
corresponding nouns and adjectives solely by having the ac- 
cent a syllable nearer the end of the word ; as, an abstract, 
and to abstract; absent, and to absent, &c. (See ^36. 4.) 

Q. What of the secondary accent ? 

4. Words of four or more syllables generally have a 
slight, or secondary accent, on the second (sometimes 
the third) syllable, before that on which the principal ac- 
cent rests ; as, unmolested^ imperturbable^ dmplificdtion, 

Q. What are proclitics and enclitics ? 

Rem. 2. Monosyllables are accented when they are essen- 
tial words in the sentence, but certain particles, such as the 
article, preposition, the negative, and some conjunctions and 
adverbs, when closely attached to other words and subordinate 
to them in sense, are not accented. When standing before 
their word they may be called proclitics, when after them, 
enclitics; as, the-mkn, in-the-house, he does no^know, he said 
this-and that, &c. 

Exercise IV. 

Give the accent of each of these words, and apply the rules. 

Morbid, solid, misty, musical, priesthood, vibrate,, 
knowledge, virtue, temperance, malignity, rapidity, un- 
philosophically, materiality, imperturbability, impene- 
trability. 

Model. — Morbid: the accent is on the first sylla- 
ble, according to Rule 3d. 

§ 8. Division of Words into Syllables. 
Q. What is the first rule for the division of words into syllables ? 
1. Words which are made up of two or more separate 



30 ETYMOLOGY. 

words, or are formed from other words by the addition 
of certain prefixes and endings, should generally be di- 
vided in pronunciation, or in writing, at the end of a 
line, into their component parts ; as, with-in^ fort-nighty 
coach-man^ am-plifyy might-y^ &;c. 
Q. What the second 1 

2. A single consonant, after an accented antepenulti- 
mate (or earlier syllable of a word) having any other 
vowel than m, should generally be joined to that syllable ; 
as, vol-uble^ malev-olent ; but, amu-sively^ ahu-sively^ &;c. 

Q. What happens when e or i stands before a vowel at the end 
of a word ? 

Rem. 1. When e or i stands before another vowel in the 
last syllable of a word, it forms a sort of diphthong with that 
vowel, and is generally pronounced something like y (see ^5, 
Rem. 3), while the preceding consonant, somewhat modified 
in its sound, is joined to the preceding vowel ; as, ocean, (osh- 
yan), motion (mosh-yon). 

Q. What the third rule ? 

3. In all other cases (with few exceptions, which are 
mostly accented penults whose vowel is sounded short), 
a single consonant should be prefixed to the vowel which 
follows ; as, fu-ry^ fa-tal^ fe-ver^ miserly ; but lev-el, 
fin-ish^fSr-est, &;c. 

Q. What of a mute and liquid, also ch, th^ &c. ? 

Rem. 2. A mute followed by a liquid, also cA, th, ph, and 
various other combinations of consonants in compound or de- 
rived words, are treated as single consonants, and annexed or 
prefixed to the vowels which they come between, according 
to the preceding rules. But of the mutes followed by a liquid, 
hi and gn are generally separated, and occasionally a few oth- 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 31 

ers ; as, drch-iteci, myth-o-logical, stenogra-phy, a-greea-hle, 
sa-cred, pa-trial; but, pub-lie, mag-nanimous, &c. 

Q. What the fourth rule'? 

4. Any two consonants, except a mute followed by 
a liquid (and the other combinations referred to in the 
above Rem.), coming between two vowels, are sepa- 
rated, one to the preceding, and one to the following 
vowel ; as, mer-ry^ san-dal^ &c. 

Q. What the fifth rule ? 

5. When three consonants come between two vowels, 
the last two are generally a mute followed by a liquid, 
and are joined to the vowel following, while the first is 
joined to the preceding vowel ; as, poul-try^ as-tral^ <fec. 

Exercise V, 

Divide these words into syllables according to the above rules. 

Mightily, amusingly, lovingly, feasible, evil, devil, 
comet, notice, license, vibrate, fragrance, puncheon, 
sophism, surly, silly, sulky, sorry, prostrate, compress, 
concrete, motionless, reflect, rebound. 

Model. — Mightily : might-i-ly^ a word of three 
syllables ; might constitutes the first syllable, since it is 
the radical part of the word, and hence to be separated 
from the ending in pronunciation (Rule 1) and is also 
an accented antepenult (Rule 2 and Rem. 2) ; in the 
ending iZz/, I is to be joined to the last vowel, according 
to Rule 3. 



32 ETYMOLOGY. 

CHAPTEE II. 
ACCIDENCE, OR CHANGES IN WORDS. 

INTRODUCTION. 
§ 9. Classes of Words^ or Parts of Speech. 

Q. What is a noun ? 

1. Those words used in designating or naming any 
person or thing are called Substantives or Nouns ; as, 
man^ child^ house^ apple^ hird^ carpenter, 

Q, What an adjective 1 

2. Those words which are employed to express the 
properties or qualities (what is inherent in, or belongs 
to the nature, or character, or condition) of a person or 
thing, are called Adjectives ; as, small^ heautiful^ blind ; 
e. g. a small boy, a blind horse. 

Rem. 1. Those adjectives which express the property of 
number and quantity are called Numerals; as, two, second, 
many, some, few. 

Q. What a pronoun ? 

3. The following classes of words, used to designate 
persons or things without calling them by any appropri- 
ate name., but by simply referring to them as standing 
in a certain relation to the speaker, are called Pronouns 
(i. e. for-nouns, standing in the place of nouns) : — 

Q. What a personal pronoun 1 

1) Those employed to designate the speaker himself 
(first person), the person addressed by him (second per- 



ACCIDENCE, OR CHANGES IN WORDS. 33 

son), and the person or thing spoken of by him (third 
person), are called Personal Pronouns ; as, J, we ; thou, 
you ; Ae, she^ it^ they^ them. 

Q. A possessive pronoun ? 

2) Those used to designate what belongs to the first, 
second, or third person, are called Possessive Pronouns ; 
as, my^ thy^ his^ her^ our, your. 

Q. A demonstrative pronoun ? 

3) Those employed in referring to something as near 
or remote, as just mentioned or about to be mentioned, or 
as in the presence of, or in some way pertaining to the 
first, second, or third person, are called Demonstrative 
Pronouns ; as, this, that, these, those. 

Q- A relative pronoun *? An interrogative ? 

4) Those that stand in a uniform relation to some 
noun or pronoun standing near them, so that one is seen 
to correspond to the other, are called Relative Pronouns; 
as, who, which, what. — When this class of pronouns are 
used in asking questions, they are called Interrogative 
Pronouns. 

Q. An indefinite pronoun ? 

5) Those which designate persons or things in the 
most indefinite and general way, as merely belonging 
to a class, or to things in general, without defining what 
one is meant, are called Indefinite Pronouns or iVw- 
merals ; as, each, every, some, any, one, none, neither, 
much, many, few, &c. 

Q. What is the article ? 

Rem. 2. The article, a (an), the, is a sort of pronominal 
3 



34 ETYMOLOGY. 

adjective, since it is either indefinite (as a or an) , or demon' 
strative (as the) , in its nature. 

Q. What is a verb ? 

4. The v^ords employed in designating an action or 
state of some person or thing (or which assert something 
about something), are called Verbs ; as, to dance^ to 
sleep^ to love ; e. g. the girl dances ; the child sleeps ; 
God loves men. 

Q. What an adverb ? 

5. The words employed in expressing the manner^ 
time^ jplace^ and frequency of an action, are called Ad- 
verbs ; as, sweetly^ now^ liere^ often ; e. g. the child sleeps 
sweetly ; he is coming now ; here he is ; he comes often, 

Q. What are modal adverbs ? What other kinds of adverbs 1 
Rem. 3. There are words, also, which express the cer- 
tainty or uncertainty of an action, or affirm or deny it, or rep- 
resent it as a mere inquiry ; as, surely, scarcely, yes, no, not, 
why? whether, &c. These are called Modal Adverbs. There 
are also some adverbs which express the intensity (or degree), 
not always of actions (verbs), but sometimes of qualities (ad- 
jectives) ; as, very, scarcely, quite, &c. 

Q. What a preposition ? 

6. Those small words which are used in expressing 
the relations of place^ time^ cause, possessions^ and other 
relations, between two nouns, or between a verb and a 
noun or pronoun, wee called Prepositions ; as, of from, 
by, before ; e. g. a man of genius ; he comes from the 
East ; the boy stands before the temple. 

Q. What a conjunction ? 

7. Those words (many of them adverbs when stand- 



ACCIDENCE, OR CHANGES IN WORDS. 85 

ing in other relations) by which the words expressing 
one thought are united or joined to those expressing 
another thought, are called Conjunctions ; as, and^ hut^ 
if^ when ; e. g. spring departs and summer succeeds to 
it ; he is not brave, hut cowardly ; when he came, I de- 
parted. 

Q. Do conjunctions ever connect single words ? 

Rem. 4. Conjunctions, properly speaking, never connect 
single words (except in a few instances, where the two 
words and the conjunction connecting them constitute a kind 
of compound term ; as, a man of wisdom-G!n<f-virtue is a per- 
fect character) ; but where they seem to, there is one or 
more words understood ; as, man eats and drinks, = man eats 
and man drinks. 

Q. What are interjections ? 

8. Certain small words used to express sudden or 
strong feeling are called Interjections ; as, ah ! alas ! 
(fee. 

Rem. 5. There are then, in English, eight distinct classes 
of words, or parts of speech, as they are called. 

Exercise VI. 

Classify the words in each of these sentences. 

Poverty is no crime. — Every man is the architect of 
his own fortune. — Still waters are deep. — I love them 
that love me. — Money brings favor, but not wisdom. — 
He who speaks whatever he likes, often hears what he 
does not like. — An evil tongue often causes much mis- 
fortune. — This man is fortunate, that unfortunate. — He 
comes, and lo ! the whole heavens are filled with light. 



36 ETYMOLOGY. 

Model. — Poverty is no crime. Poverty is a noun, 
because it is the name of a thing ; is is a verb, because 
it asserts something about poverty ; no is an indefinite 
pronoun, as it does not confine the assertion to any par- 
ticular kind of crime ; crime is a noun, the name of a 
thing. 

§ 10. Nature of Inflection (or Changes) in 
Words. 

Q. In speaking of things, under what relations is it necessary to 
refer to them, and what are the changes called which words un- 
dergo in order to express these relations ? 

1. In speaking of men and things, it is necessary to 
refer to them, sometimes as males ^ and sometimes as 
females^ and sometimes as neither male nor female ; 
sometimes as individuals^ and sometimes as combined ; 
sometimes as actings and sometimes as acted upon, or as 
the object of an action ; sometimes as acting (or acted 
upon) in past^ sometimes in present^ and sometimes in 
future time ; sometimes as really actii^g or acted upon, 
and sometimes as acting or acted upon only in concep- 
tion or supposition ; — and that, too, whether of \hQ firsts 
second^ or third person. In order to express these dif- 
ferent relations, the words employed in designating per- 
sons and things, and their acts and states (i. e. nouns, 
pronouns, and verbs), undergo certain changes, called 
Infection. 

Q. What of the inflection of nouns 1 

2. The inflection of nouns, which is called Declen' 
sion^ designates : 1) the Gender^ 2) the Number^ 3) 
the Case. 



ACCIDENCE, OR CHANGES IN WORDS. 37 

Q. What does gender indicate, and how is it expressed ? 

1) The Gender. This denotes an object (person or- 
thing) as male (masculine), or female (feminine), or nei- 
ther male nor female (neuter). In nouns there is no 
special inflection for the neuter gender, but to distinguish 
males from females there are : a) different words, as, 
hoy (masculine), girl (feminine) ; h) masculine and 
feminine prefixes, as, /le-goat, she-godX ; c) different end- 
ings, as, jpoet^ poet-e55. But the personal pronoun of the 
third person has a separate form for each of the three 
genders; as, Ae (masculine), she (feminine), 17 (neuter). 

Q. What is number, and how is it indicated ? 

2) Number. A noun used to designate a single indi- 
vidual or thing, or class of things, is said to be in the 
singular number^ while a noun referring to two or more 
persons, things, or classes, is said to be in the plural 
number. The plural of nouns is generally distinguished 
from the singular, by the addition of the ending 
s or es ; as, sing, fork^ plur. forks,, &c. But most pro- 
nouns take an entirely new form for the plural ; as, 
sing. 7, plur. z^a, &c. 

Q. What is case, and how indicated ? 

3) Case. There are commonly reckoned three cases 
in Exiglish : the nominative case (representing something 
as acting,, or as the subject of the action of another), 
the possessive case (representing something as the owner 
or possessor of something), and the objective case (repre- 
senting something as the object of an action, or that upon 
which it terminates). Still, in English, there is no in- 
flection in nouns to designate case, except in the posses- 



38 ETYMOLOGY. 

sive^ and this is commonly s with an apostrophe before 
it ('s) in the singular, and simply an apostrophe in the 
plural ; as, a lion'5 skin, six lions' skins. But the per- 
sonal and relative pronouns have a different form for 
each case, both in the singular and plural ; as, sing, thou 
(nom.), thy (posses.), thee (objec.) ; plur. you (nom.), 
your (posses.), you (objec.) ; who (nom.), whose (pos- 
ses.), whom (objec). 

Q. What does the inflection of verbs indicate 1 

3. The inflection of verbs, which is called Conjuga- 
tion^ indicates : 1) whether the action refers to one or 
more (number) ; 2) whether it is performed by the 
person speakings the person addressed^ or the person 
spoken of (person) ; 3) whether the action refers to past, 
present^ or future time (tense or time) ; 4) whether the 
action is real^ or merely conceived of or supposed (mood 
or mode). 

Q. What of the other parts of speech, and what other species 
of change in words 1 

Rem. 1. The other parts of speech are not inflected, in 
English. Neither is that part of the verb called the Partici- 
ple inflected, since it partakes of the nature of the adjective. 
However, both adjectives and adverbs suffer a kind of change, 
called Comparison. That species of change in words which 
consists in forming new words by compounding them with 
each other, or adding syllables to the beginning or end, is 
called the Formation of Words. 



ACCIDENCE, OR CHANGES IN WORDS. 39 

Exercise VII, 

Name the inflected and uninflected words in these examples , and 
describe the character of each inflection. 

The boy strikes the girl. — The boys strike the girl. 
— He comes up to me. — He came up to me. — I am 
on my way home. — His hat is on his head. — She is in 
the field. — Her dress is becoming. — It is a stone. — 
The actor play« his part well. — The actress is skilled 
in her art. — If he arrive to day, it is well. — We are 
writing. — You are laboring. — My friend entreated me 
to come to him. — I entreat you to come to me. 

Model. — The hoy strikes the girl. The is an unin- 
flected word (article) ; hoy is a noun of the masculine 
form, and is represented as acting ; hence it is in the 
nominative case, and consequently is in its umnflected 
state ; strikes is the inflected form of the verb to express 
the action of a noun of the third person and singular 
njimber in present time ; the as before ; girl is a noun 
of the feminine form, and is represented as receiving the 
action ; hence it is a noun in the objective case, and con- 
sequently is uninflected. 



SECTION I. 

OF THE SUBSTANTIVE OR NOUN (^ 9. 1). 

§ 11, Classes of Nouns. 
Q. What are concrete, and what abstract nouns ? 
1. Nouns are either Concrete or Abstract, Concrete^ 
when they are the names of what has a real and indC' 



40 ETYMOLOGY. 

pendent existence ; as, maw, town^ Thomas^ Boston* 
Abstract^ when they express substantively actions^ 
qualities^ and conditions ; as, journey^ question^ splen- 
dor^ friendship, 

2. Concrete nouns are divided into : — 
Q. What are proper nouns ? 

1) Proper Nouns ^ i. e. names proper or peculiar to 
single persons or things, without reference to their class ; 
as, Samuel^ Boston^ America, 

Q. What common nouns ? 

2) Common Nouns or Appellatives^ i. e. names com- 
mon to each and every one of the persons or things 
which constitute a class ; as, man (i. e. any one of the 
class of beings called men)^ house^ town^ dec. 

Q. What material nouns ? 

3) Material Nouns ^ i. e. the nam.es of materials^ in 
which there is no idea of one or many, but simply %i 
quantity or quality^ i. e. of more or less^ good or had^ 
&;c. ; as, milk^ water ^ gold^ grain^ tea^ sugar^ &c. 

Q. What collective nouns ? 

4) Collective Nouns^ i. e. nouns which in the singular 
number involve the idea of plurality^ or designate a 
class or number of individual persons or things as a col- 
lection or whole ; as, mankind^ herd^ fleets society^ cler- 
gy^ cavalry^ horse or foot (as a collection of soldiers), 
people, government, &c. 

Q. What do participial nouns express 1 

Rem. Present participles, also, are often used as nouns, to 
denote an abstract action ; as, ivalJcing, singing, &c. 



ACCIDENCE, OR CHANGES IN WORDS. 41 

Exercise Till. 

Classify the nouns in this list. 

House, stone, property, land, Stephen, Virginia, inju- 
ry, Albany, wisdom, fuel, coin, wall, sand, sugar, ene- 
my, goat, cow, lamb, army, sea, student, pork, running, 
weaving. 

Model. — House : house is a common noun, because 
it is a name applicable to any one of a whole class of 
buildings. 

§ 12. Gender of Nouns [§ 10. 2. 1)]. 

1. In English, we have the following rules of gen 
der : — 

Q. What sort of designations are masculine ? 

1) The names and designations of men, and many 
other male animals, are regarded as masculine; as, 
ThomaSj carpenter^ actor ^ ox^ he-goat. 

Q. What feminine 1 

2) The names and designations of women, and many 
other female animals, are regarded as feminine ; as, 
Mary^ seamstress^ actress^ cow^ she-goat, 

Q. What of the gender of the smaller animals, and the larger 
ones when the sex is not to be discriminated ? 

Rem. 1 . Most of the smaller and undomesticated animala 
have but one name for both sexes (as, squirrel, lark, seal) ; 
and even the more important animals, which have separate 
names for the male and female, are generally designated in 
common by the name of the male, except it be desirable to 
discriminate the sex ; as, horse (both male and female) , ass, 



42 ETYMOLOGY. 

goat. But when we wish to discriminate the gender, we say, 
horse, mare ; gander, goose ; he-goat, she-goat, &c. 

Q. What the gender of inanimate things ? 

3) The names and designations of inanimate objects 
are regarded as neuter ; as, stone., wood., log., journey., 
question, 

Q. What of the use of pronouns in referring to animals and 
things ? 

Rem. 2. But both inanimate objects, and irrational ani- 
mals which have (or are often designated by) but a single 
name for both sexes, are often referred to by masculine or 
feminine pronouns, thus ascribing to them a particular gender. 
The gender thus ascribed to them depends upon whether we 
conceive of them as possessing masculine or feminine qualities. 
Thus, of animals, the fierce, robust, and vigorous are regarded 
as masculine (as the lion, hear, horse, &c.), while the timid, 
beautiful, quiet, and gentle (as the hare, sparrow, dove, night- 
ingale, &c.) are viewed as feminine. So of inanimate ob- 
jects, we make the sun, time, death, winter, &c., masculine; 
but the moon, spring, ship, city, state, island, law, religion, 
virtue, and most abstract nouns, feminine. But as this is a 
species of personification, it is generally confined to the 
grander, more attractive, and lifelike objects of nature, and 
even with regard to these is used but sparingly, except in 
poetry and imaginative or impassioned composition. 

2. There are the following ways of expressing the 
gender of male and female beings : — 

Q. What is the first way of expressing gender ? What the ex- 
amples ? 

1) By different words; as, — 





ACCIDENCE, OR 


CHANGES IN WORDS. 


Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female 


Boy 


Girl 


Monk 


Nun 


Uncle 


Aunt 


Lord 


Lady- 


Father 


Mother 


King 


Queen 


Widower 


Widow 


Husband 


Wife 


Brother 


Sister 


Nephew 


Niece 


Sloven 


Slut 


Bull 


Cow 


Wizard 


Witch 


Boar 


Sow 


Bachelor 


Maid 


Drake 


Duck 


Earl 


Countess 


Cock 


Hen 


Buck 


Doe 


Gander 


Goose 


Horse 


Mare 


Bridegroom 


Bride 


Man 


Woman 


Eam 


Ewe 



43 



Q. What the second way, and the examples ? 

2) By masculine and feminine prefixes ; as, — 

Male. Female. Male. Female, 

He-goat She-goat Man-servant Maid-servant 

Cock-sparrow Hen-sparrow Bull-calf Heifer-calf 

Q. What the third way, and the examples ? 



3) By a 


feminine form 


derived fron^ 


I the masculine, 


most frequently by adding 


ess; as, — 




Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female. 


Actor 


Actress 


Peer 


Peeress 


Baron 


Baroness 


Heir 


Heiress 


Sorcerer 


Sorceress 


Poet 


Poetess 


Count 


Countess 


Governor 


Governess 


Duke 


Duchess 


Lion 


Lioness 


Host 


Hostess 


Tiger 


Tigress 


Jew 


Jewess 


Hero 


Heroiwe 


Negro 


Negress 


Landgrave 


Landgravine 



44 ETYMOLOGY. 

Q. What changes sometimes occur in forming the feminine 
from the masculine ? 

Rem. 3. In forming the feminine from masculines in tor, 
ter, dor, nor, ger, either the endings or, er, are wholly reject- 
ed, or their vowel dropped; as governor, governess; tiger, ti- 
gress; but master (by a vowel change) makes mistress, duke 
becomes duchess, and marquis, marchioness. Also a few mas- 
culines in tor, following the Latin, make trix in the feminine ; 
as. administrator, administrotrix. 

Q,. What of the common gender ? When is the masculine used 
for the feminine in nouns which have two forms ? 

3. Designations of persons which are not thus ex- 
pressed by different forms are of the common gender^ 
that is, they include both male and female ; as, painter^ 
artist, &c. So, also, where the idea of the class, office^ 
occupation, or profession!^ prominent, rather than the 
sex, the masculine is employed for both genders, even 
where there is a feminine form in use ; as, the poets of 
America (including both male and female). And, in 
general, the masculine designation, whether of men or 
animals, is commonly used to express the class or 
species. 

Exercise IX. 

Give the gender of these nouns, and the rule in each case. 

Sloven, slut, monk, nun, lad, lass, buck, doe, adul- 
terer, adulteress, author, mechanic, tailor, tailoress, mer- 
chant, sailor, authoress, heir, heiress, hero, heroine, 
chanter, elector, deacon, deaconess, enchantress, bene- 
factor, benefactress, host, hostess, Jew, princess, patron, 
Jewess, prophetess, traitor, lion, tiger, elephant, hare, 



ACCIDENCE, OR CHANGES IN WORDS. 45 

mouse, squirrel, wisdom, destruction, patience, church, 
evil, torrent, testator, administrator, director, administra- 
trix, testatrix, directrix. 

Model. — Sloven : sloven is of the masculine gen- 
der, it being the masculine form corresponding to slut, 

§ 13. Number of Nouns [§ 10. 2. 2)] 

Q. How many numbers have nouns 1 

1. Substantives have two numbers, the Singular^ sig- 
nifying owe, and the Plural^ signifying more than one, 

2, The plural is formed from the singular as fol- 
lows : — 

Q. What is the first rule for forming the plural ? 

1) Nouns ending in 5, sA, cA, a?, also o not having a 
vowel before it, form their plural by adding es to the 
singular, and those in y without a vowel before it, by 
changing this letter into i, and then adding es ; as, 
loss-65, church-es, wish-es, hox-es^ hero-es (but folio-s), 
qualiti-es ; but day-5. 

Q. What exceptions to rule first ? 

Rem. 1. Exceptions. — Ch hard (i. e. having the sound of 
k) takes s only, in the plural ; as, patriarch-5, distich-5. Of 
those in o with a consonant before it, canto, tyro, quarto, octa- 
vo, and a few others, take simply s; some also fluctuate be- 
tween the two forms ; as, grotto, portico, 

Q. What is the second rule ? 

2) Most words ending in / and fe form their plural 
by changing these letters into ves ; as, loaf, loaves^ wife, 
wives. 



46 ETYMOLOGY. 

Q. What exceptions to rule second ? 

Rem. 2. Exceptions. — Strife, fife, and nouns ending in 
oof, ief (but not thief, which makes thieves) , ff, and rf, make 
their plural by adding 5 alone to the singular, and without 
changing / into v ; as, strife-5, fife-5, hoof-5, chief-5, mufF-5, 
dwarf-5. 

Q. What is the third rule ? 

3) In all other cases the plural is formed by adding s 
alone to the singular ; as, top-5, sack-5, lad-5, flea-5, 
stripe-5. 

Q. What exceptions to the third rule ? 

Rem. 3. Exceptions, — A few nouns following certain ob- 
solete Anglo-Saxon forms, make their plural irregularly : 
1) in ce; as, penny, pence, die, dice (but both of these words 
have regular plurals also, viz. pennies, dies, which have the 
proper plural meaning, while the irregular forms have a col- 
lective meaning) ; 2) by a change of vowel in the radical 
part of the word ; as, man, men, tooth, teeth, goose, geese, 
mouse, mice, louse, lice ; 3) by adding en ; as, ox, oxen, 
child, children, cow, hne (i. e. kyen), brother, brethren (also 
brothers, distinguished from brethren, as pennies from pence). 
In the older forms of the language, there were still other plu- 
rals of this form ; as, ho sen, eldren, &c. 

Q. What of the plural of abstract and material nouns ? 

3. Abstract nouns and nouns of material properly 
have no plural. Still, they are often used in the plurei 
to denote particular manifestations of the abstract quality, 
or particular kinds of the general material ; as, kind- 
nesses (i. e. repeated acts of kindness), sugars^ teas^ &;c. 

Q. What nouns have no singular ? 

4. Certain things in their nature double or manifold 



ACCIDENCE, OR CHANGES IN WOUDS. 47 

have no singular ; as, pincers^ breeches^ hose (stockings), 
tongs, lungs^ scissors^ ashes^ annals^ bowels^ clothes^ 
assets^ manners^ victuals^ Alps^ Azores^ Andes, &c. 

Q. Wliat plural nouns have no singular, and what is their 



5. Several plural nouns having no singular are often 
used as singular : — 

1) Alms, riches, pains, (mostly plur.,) news, amends, 
(mostly sing.,) means (both sing, and plur. ; mean has 
an entirely different sense). 

2) Mathematics, physics, optics, and the names of 
other sciences in ics. These generally have a singular 
verb, when influenced by a singular noun in the predi- 
cate, but otherwise are to be treated as plural ; as, 
" metaphysics is that science," &c. ( Hutton) ; but, 
"metaphysics tend only," &c. (Knox). But perhaps it 
is better, generally, to put these words in a dependent 
relation, and make science the principal word ; as, '' the 
science of optics treats," &;c. 

Q. How is a class usually expressed, and what exceptions ? 

Rem. 4. A species or class (except in the case of ab- 
stract nouns and nouns of material) is generally expressed by 
the singular of the noun with the article the before it ; as, the 
dog, the horse, the clergy, &c. Bui man, deer, sheep, and 
swine (the last three, without the article a or the, being always 
plural), express the whole class without the article. 

Q. What of the plural of naturalized words and proper names 1 

6. The plural of words which have been adopted from 
other languages and have become naturalized in Eng- 
lish, as well as the plural of all proper names, whether 
foreign or native, is best formed, as in other words, by 



48 ETYMOLOGY. 

adding s or es to the singular ; as, anathemas^ the Scip* 
ios^ CcBsars^ Mariuses^ &c. 

Q. What of the plural of compound words and titles ? 

Rem. 5. Compound words generally inflect the last word 
in forming the plural ; as, spoonfuls, eel-pots, &c. But where 
the last word of the compound is an adjective, or a noun gov- 
erned by a preposition, and the union between the words is 
not very close, the first word is commonly varied ; as, cousins- 
german, justices-of-the-i^e^Lce, 5on5-in-law, cowr^s-martial (or 
court-martials), aids-de-CBXwp (or aid-de-camps). So, also, the 
plural of proper names after Mr. or Miss, and the like, is 
sometimes formed by inflecting the title, and sometimes by in- 
flecting the name; as, the Misses Abbot, or the Miss Abbots; 
the Messrs. Tolman, or the Mr. Tolmans. As, however, the 
title and name ar closely united, the latter usage seems pref- 
erable. But in speaking of firms and companies, Messrs. 
with the singular should be used in preference to Mr. with 
the plural : as, the Messrs. Harper, the Messrs. Abbot. So 
when the Christian names are given with the family name ; as, 
the Misses Mary and Margaret Fuller. 

Q. What of the plural of foreign words ? 

7. The plural of nouns from foreign languages, which 
are used but rarely, and are still regarded as foreign 
words in our language, is generally formed as in those 
languages respectively ; as, — 

Q. What of those from the Hebrew ? 

1) From the Hebrew .^ there is the plural in im; as, 
cherub, plur. cherub-im ; seraph, plur. seraph-m (also 
cherubs and seraphs), 

Q. From the Latin ? 

2) Frora the Latin^ a) by changing us into i; as, 



ACCIDENCE, OR CHANGES IN WORDS. 49 

genius, genii (but geniuses in the sense of men of gen- 
ius ; also genus has for its plural genera) ; h) by chang- 
ing um {on Greek) into a ; as, arcanum, arcana (but 
encomium becomes encomiums)^ phenomenon, phenom- 
ena ; c) is into es ; as, thesis, theses ; d) eo?, ix^ into ices ; 
as, appendix, appendices (also appendixes)^ and index, 
indices (of a book, but in other cases indexes) ; e) a into 
cE ; as, lamina, lamince (but stamina is a plural from 
stamen), 

Q. From the French ? 

3) French words in eo^w form their plural in eaux; 
as, beau, heaux. 

Q. How is the plurality of letters, &c., expressed ? 

Rem. 6. The repetition or plurality of letters, figures, aTid 
words, as such, is expressed by placing after them s with an 
apostrophe before it; as, a^s, b^s, 5'5, bufs, «&c. 

Exercise X. 

Form the plural of these nouns. 

Father, son, horse, sword, bow, arrow, shoe, moth, 
crutch, lash, kiss, fox, portico, ratio, muff, calf, life, 
chief, grief, roof, loaf, scarf, hill, bar, slab, hen, drum, 
egg, ray, lady, Cicero, Demosthenes, Smith, Mr. Web- 
ster, Miss Warren, canon, automaton, criterion, Fabius, 
Horatius, alumnus, focus, stimulus, radius, fungus, 
erratum, speculum, stratum, medium, analysis, basis, 
crisis, memorandum, phasis, parenthesis, oasis, formula, 
larva, nebula, vortex, apex, ellipsis, axis, diaeresis, 
datum, effluvium. 

4 



50 ETYMOLOGY. 

Model. — Father : plural fathers^ according to Rule' 
3d. 

§ 14. Cases of Nouns. 

Q. What are the cases used in English ? 

1. It has already been stated that there are three 
cases in English, the Nominative^ Possessive^ and Ob- 
jective^ each of which has a particular office in the for- 
mation of a sentence [see § 10. 2. 3)]. 

Q. What is the inflection for the possessive case ? 

2. The only case (in nouns) which is formed by in- 
flection is the possessive. This is formed, in the singu- 
lar (and those plurals which do not end in s), by adding 
s preceded by an apostrophe ('5, originally es) to the 
nominative singular ; but in plurals ending in s, by add- 
ing simply the apostrophe to the nominative plural ; as, 
Lofs wife, the merchants ship, the merchants'* ships, 
the Jews'* passover ; but, the mew's clothes, the chil- 
dren's bread. 

Q. WTiy and when is the apostrophic s omitted in the possessive 
singular ? 

Rem. 1. As the s is omitted after an s in the possessive 
plural to avoid the concurrence of too many hissing sounds, 
which are both unpleasant and difficult to be pronounced, so it 
is generally omitted in the possessive singular of nouns ending 
in a hissing sound (c or ce soft, s ox z), before another word 
beginning with 5, particularly before sake; as, " for con- 
science' sake." This is especially the case in the singular of 
proper names ending in 5, particularly if they have another s 
near the end of the final 5; as, '' Moses' minister," *' Achil- 
les' wrath." But in prose, at least, the s is generally written 



ACCIDENCE, OR CHANGES IN WORDS. 51 

in the singular of proper names, unless it would bring too 
near to each other more than two hissing or other difficult 
sounds; as, Verres's arts (Mid.) ; Nichols's defence (Macau- 
Jay). But there is great unsteadiness in the usage of writers 
on this point, and there was the same variation in the Anglo- 
Saxon. See Klipstein's Anglo-Saxon Gram. <^45. 

Q. What of the possessive compound titles, «&c. ? 

Rem. 2. The possessive inflection, also, is placed after the 
singular of compound titles, designations of companies, com- 
pound words, &c. ; as, '' John of Gaunt' s title," " Henry the 
Eighth's wife," "Waterston, Pray, & Co. '5 store," '^ Miss 
Webster's fan," "the aid-de-camp's horse." Also after a 
noun which stands in a possessive relation before a present 
participle; as, "to prevent any man's being absolved" 
(Mid.); but quite as frequently, perhaps, this construction 
is avoided, or the '5 is omitted; as, "on Captain Hall pro- 
ceeding to land" (North Brit. Rev.). But the possessive 
form of the pronoun is always used in such a case; as, 
" nothing can prevent his doing it." 



Exercise XI. 

Give the Possessive form of these words. 

Apple, atom, bush, thief, church, muff, mouse, oxen, 
witness, riches, ruins, Alps, bellows, Collins, James, 
Edwards, Procrustes, Geddes, Demosthenes, Hortensius, 
field-marshal, Charles the First. 

Model. — Apple: Poss. apple^s^ because a common 
noun of the singular number. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



§ 15. Declension of Nouns (§ 10. 2). 

There are the following forms of declension in Eng- 
lish:— 



Q. How do you 


decline the first set of paradigms ? 

T 




Sing. 


Plur. 


1. 


Sing. 


Plur. 


Norn. Brother 


Brothers 




Box 


Boxes 


Poss. Brother's 


Brothers' 




Box's 


Boxes 


Ohj. Brother 


Brothers. 




Box 


Boxes. 


Q. How the second? 


TT 






Sing. 


Plur. 


11. 


Sing. 


Plur. 


Norn. Wife 


Wives 




Fly 


Flies 


Poss. Wife's 


Wives' 




Fly's 


Flies' 


Ohj. Wife 


Wives. 




Fly 


Flies. 


Q. How the third 1 









III. 



Sing. Plur. Sing. 

Nom. Witness Witnesses Ratio 

Poss. Witness's Witnesses' Ratio's 

Obj. Witness Witnesses. Ratio 



Plur. 
Ratios 
Ratios' 
Ratios. 



Q. How the fourth? 






Sing. 


Plur. 


[V. 

Sing. 


Plur. 


Nom. Man 


Men 


Hero 


Heroes 


Poss. Man's 


Men's 


Hero's 


Heroes' 


Ohj. Man 


Men. 


Hero 


Heroes. 



ACCIDENCE, OR CHANGES IN WORDS, 53 

Q. How the fifth ? 





Sing. 


V. 

Plur. 


Sing. Plur. 


Norn. 


John 


Not used. 


Marius Mariuses 


Poss, 


John's 




Marius' (or 's) Mariuses' 


Ohj. 


John 




Marius Mariuses. 



Q. What do prepositions with their nouns often take the place 
of in English ? 

Rem. Prepositions with the nouns following them express, 
in English, many of the relations expressed in Greek and Lat- 
in by the cases alone. Thus to and for with their nouns cor- 
respond to the Latin and Greek dative, sndfrom, hy, and with, 
and their nouns, to the ablative. Even the possessive is ex- 
pressed quite as often by the preposition of, as by the proper 
possessive ending; as, the robe of the king, or, the king^s 
robe. 



Exercise XII. 

Decline each of these nouns. 

Atom, fox, rush, barrel, thief, grief, whoop, ox, foot, 
root, mouse, cry, day, muff, canto, quarto, folio, Caesar, 
Sophocles, Henry, knight- errant. 

Model. — Atom : Sing. Nom. atom, Poss. atom's, 
Obj. atom ; Plur, Nom. atoms, Poss. atoms', Obj. at- 
oms. 



54 ETYMOLOGY. 

SECTION II. 
of the pronoun (^9. 3). 

§ 16. Personal Pronouns. 

Q. What are the personal pronouns, and how declined ? 

1. The Simple Suhstantive Personal Pronouns, Of 
these there are three, one for each person. They are 
thus declined : — 

FIRST PERSON. SECOND PERSON. 

Sing, Plur. Sing, Plur. 

Norn, I We Thou You (ye) 

Poss. My (mine) Our (ours) Thy (thine) Your (yours) 

Ohj. Me Us. Thee You. 

THIRD PERSON. 

Sing. Plur, 

Norn, He, She, It They 

Poss, His, Her (hers). Its Their (theirs) 

Obj, Him, Her, It Them. 

Q. Why has only the pronoun for the third person a feminine 
form ? 

Rem. 1. The pronouns of the first and second persons, it: 
will be seen, have only one form for all genders. This is be- 
cause the person speaking and the person addressed must al- 
ways be present, and hence need no further identification. 
But the third person (or thing) may be absent, and hence 
needs the identification of gender. 

Q. What of the usage of thou, you, and ye ? 

Rem. 2. In the second person, the plural you (which, be- 
ing more general, is considered more polite) is commonly used 
instead of thou and thee, in the singular number. Thou and 



ACCIDENCE, OR CHANGES IN WORDS. 55 

thee are chiefly confined to poetry, addresses to the Deity, and 
the ** plain language " of the Quaker. The form ye is mostly 
confined to the older forms of the language, and to the solemn 
style of address. 

Q. What are the possessive pronouns, and how derived ? 

2. The only Adjective or Possessive Personal Pro- 
nouns in use in the language are the possessive forms 
of the substantive personal pronouns, my (mine)^ thy 
{thine) ^ his^ her {hers)^ our (ours)^ your {yours) ^ their 
{theirs). The possessive pronoun (as in other lan- 
guages) is derived from the possessive (or genitive) case 
of the substantive personal pronoun, and as adjective 
words in English have no separate inflection, the two 
forms are identical. 

Q. What is the difierence in usage between the two possessive 
forms ? 

Rem. 3. Of the double possessive forms, my, mine; thy, 
thine, &c., the first in each pair must always be followed by 
its noun, but the second is generally used without a noun fol- 
lowing it ; as, this is my hat, this hat is mine. Still the sec- 
ondary forms (especially in old English) are often used before 
nouns beginning with a vowel or an h; as, '' how opened he 
thine eyes V^ 

Q. What are the reflexive forms ? 

3. The Reflexive Pronouns (denoting an object which 
receives its own action) are used only in the objective 
case. They are : — 

FIRST PERSON. SECOND PERSON. THIRD PERSON. 

Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur, 

Myself Ourselves. Thyself Yourselves. Himself "J Them 



56 ETYMOLOGY. 

Q. How are the reflexive pronouns formed, and how are the 
nominative and possessive cases expressed 1 

Rem. 4. They are formed from the simple personal pro- 
nouns, by adding self in the singular, and selves in the plural, 
to the possessive case of the first and second persons, and the 
objective case of the third. Their possessive case, or the rejkx- 
ive possessive idea, is expressed by the possessive pronoun fol- 
lowed by the word own; as, his own, her own, their own, &c. 
There is also a sort of reflexive, or rather intensive, nominative 
in use, formed by prefixing personal pronouns to the reflexive 
forms; as, I myself ; and sometimes simply myself, &c. 

Rem. 5. The forms our self and yourself are found only 
after a plural pronoun used for the singular ; as, Thomas, you 
may take yourself off; loe will ourself extend to it. 

Q. What of the reciprocal pronouns ? 

4. The Reciprocal Pronouns (denoting the mutual 
action of different agents, one upon another) are each 
other and one another^ the former being used of two or 
more^ the latter only of more than two. They are 
treated as compound pronouns, and take the sign of the 
possessive case after the last word ; as, each other'' s^ one 
another'^s. 

Exercise XIII. 

Classify the personal pronouns in these examples, and give their 
case. 

I love them that love me, and they that seek me early 
shall find me. — John took his hat and took from it the 
ribbon. — We visited our friends in the city, and went 
with them to their country seat. — They attempted to 
injure their friend, but in so doing they injured them- 



ACCIDENCE, OR CHANGES IN WORDS. 57 

selves. — He killed himself with his own hand. — I my- 
self am the man. — We often fail of our highest interest 
from too great impatience. — The dogs contended, and 
tore each other piteously. 

Model. — T love them^ &c. 1 is a personal pronoun 
of the first person sing, and nom. case ; them is a per- 
sonal pronoun of the third person plur. and obj. case ; 
me is a personal pronoun of the first person sing, and obj. 
case ; they is a personal pronoun of the third person 
plur. nom. case. 

§ 17. Demonstrative Pronouns. 
Q. What are the demonstratives ? 

1. The Demonstrative Pronouns (used in pointing 
out or identifying an object more clearly) are this^ 
ihat^ the same^ self. 

Q. What their inflections ? 

2. They are none of them inflected to express the 
relations of case, but this becomes these in the plural, 
that becomes those^ self becomes selves^ and same suffers 
no change. Hence we have : — 

Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. 

This These That Those 

Self Selves Same Same 

Q. What the distinction between this and that 1 

Rem. 1. This points to what is nearer, or pertains to the 
speaker, that to what is more remote, or pertains to the one 
addressed ; this to the last mentioned of two things, that to 
the first ; this may refer to a statement about to be made, that 
generally refers to a past one. 



58 ETYMOLOGY. 

Q. What the usage of self and same 1 

Rem. 2. Self is intensive, and hence demonstrative. It is 
not used alone in the nominative or objective, but, besides its 
use in forming the reflexive pronouns (§ 16. 3), is used with 
other possessive expressions to denote the nature of a thing ; 
as, "the man's very seJf,''^ Yet v^e sometimes hear an ex- 
pression of this kind : " 5e/f was at w^ork there." — The same 
points out something as identical with what has been before 
spoken of. It is sometimes strengthened by the addition of 
self ox very ; as, the selfsame, the very same. 

Q. In what two ways may these pronouns be used ? 

3. All these pronouns (except self) may be used both 
with and without a noun, i. e. both substantively and 
adjectively, 

Q. What of the articles a and the ? 

Rem. 3. The article the, too, (which has no inflection,) is 
properly a demonstrative word, but the article a (or an before 
a vowel and sometimes before h) is indefinite. 

<§ 18. Eelative and Interrogative Pronouns. 
Q. In what two ways are who, which, and what used ? 

1. The pronouns who^ which., and what are used both 
relatively^ (i. e. relating or referring to some other word, 
usually standing before them, and hence called the antC' 
cedent^) and in asking questions [interrogatively). 

Q. How are they inflected ? 

2. Who, both in the singular and plural, has whose in 
the possessive, and whom in the objective case ; which 
has whose in the possessive, and remains unchanged in 



ACCIDENCE, OR CHANGES IN WORDS. 59 

the objective, while what undergoes no change at all. 
Hence we have : — 



Sing, and Plur. 


Sing, and Plur. 


Sing, and Plur. 


Norn. Who 


Which 


What 


Poss, Whose 


Whose 


What • 


Ohj. Whom. 


Which. 


What. 



Q. What is the usage of loho and which 1 

Rem. 1. As relatives, who is used in referring to persons, 
and ivhich to things (and in old English often to persons) ; but 
as interrogatives, while loho still refers to persons, which may 
refer to either persons or things, but always as belonging to 
some definitely known class or number ; as, " who did it? " (an 
indefinite inquiry) ; "which of you did it? " (a definite in- 
quiry). 

Q. What is the usage of what ? 

Rem. 2. What as a relative (sometimes called a com- 
pound relative) is equivalent to that ivhich, the antecedent 
being always omitted, and as an interrogative is employed in 
indefinite inquiries with regard to things, very much as who is 
with regard to persons ; as, " what book is it? " ** what does 
he seek? " 

Q. What of that ? 

3. That.^ also, is a relative, and may refer to either 
persons or things. It is generally used, for the sake of 
variety, to prevent the too frequent recurrence of who 
or which. It is not inflected. 

Q. Which are adjective, and which substantive ? 

Rem. 3. Who and that are substantive pronouns, and hence 
not followed by a noun, but ivhich and what (as interrogatives) 
are often used as adjective pronouns and followed by a noun. 



60 ETYMOLOGY. 

Q. What compounds of who^ which and what^ and how used ? 

Rem. 4. From who, which, and lohat, by adding ever, so- 
ever, are formed the indefinite relatives whoever, whichever, 
whatever; whosoever, whichsoever, whatsoever; in which the 
ending ever (giving a more comprehensive and unlimited 
meaning to the pronouns) remains unchanged, while the pro- 
noun itself is inflected as when uncompounded. They are 
equivalent to any one who, any thing which, &c., the antece- 
dent being always indefinite and not expressed. The form 
whoso is obsolete. So also is the old interrogative form 
whether, which is now used only as an adverb . 

Q. What of indirect questions '? 

4. The same interrogative words are used in indirect 
or dependent questions, and in the direct (see § 53) ; as, 
I know not who did it, ichat it is, &c. 

Q. How are indirect questions to be distinguished ? 

Rem. 5. A dependent question may always be distin- 
guished from a simple relative sentence, by its being capable 
of being changed into a direct interrogatory without materially 
altering the sense ; as, I know not who he was (indirect) ; who 
was he ? (direct) ; both implying a want of information, which, 
however, in the latter case, is anxiously sought after, and in 
the former merely stated. 

Q. What are the correlative pronouns ? 

5. The forms which express corresponding qualities 
or quantities — as, such^ as ; as {so) great^ as ; as many^ 
as ; as much^ as ; as old, as ; or interrogatively, how 
great ? so great ? &c. — are called Correlative Pro- 
nouns, 

Q. What the correlative adverbs ? 

Rem. 6. There are corresponding adverbial forms, also, 



ACCIDENCE, OR CHANGES IN WORDS. 61 

which may be called adverbial correlatives ; as, as^ so; as, as; 
where, somewhere, there {here); whence, hence, thence; whither, 
thither, hither; when, then; how, somehow, so. The forms 
beginning with w (also how) are used both as relative and in- 
terrogative adverbs ; as, '' where is he"? " he is where you left 
him. 



§ 19. Indefinite Pronouns. 

Q. What are the indefinite pronouns 1 

1. The Indefinite Pronouns are any^ one, any one, 
any thing, a certain one ; somehody, some one, some- 
thing ; each, each one ; nobody, nothing ; no one, none, 
no ; one, other, the other, another ; either, neither. 

Q. What inflection do they have as substantives 1 

2. Most of these forms may be used either alone or 
with a substantive, and when standing alone may take 
the possessive inflection '5; as, this is one's, that the 
other's. One and other, also, have plural forms {ones, 
others), when they stand without a noun ; as, regard 
the rights of others ; he took the old bird and left the 
young ones. 

Q. What is the usage of each, every, one, either, neither 1 

3. Each and every are distributive words, each being 
used in distributing either two or more things, and every 
always in distributing more than two. One is used 
both as an indefinite designation of some pei^on or thing, 
and as the alternative of another (in reference to several 
objects) or of the other (in reference to two objects), 
while either and neither allow or deny something about 
each of two objects ; as, " which of the two do you 
mean ? either, or neither, ^'^ as the case may be. 



62 ETYMOLOGY. 

Rem. Either and neither (followed by or or nor) are con- 
junctions, which, indeed, is their most common use. No is 
oftener a mere negative answer, and one a numeral adjective. 

Exercise XIV, (on §§17, 18, 19.) 

Classify the pronouns belonging to the three sections to which 
these exercises refer, and give their usage, 

1. That man is cowardly, this one is brave. — These 
apples are sweet, those are sour. — This is the same man 
whom I saw yesterday. — I borrowed a book on Monday, 
and returned the same on Tuesday. — This is the work 
of self. — That is the selfsame knife which I lost. — ^ 
Whose colt is this ? — What have you lost ? — AVhich 
of you did this ? — The man whom I saw yesterday is 
at the door. — The child who was just now crying has 
fallen asleep. — Who has come ? I know not who. — 
Here is the man, whosoever he may be. — Here is the 
coat, such as it is. — My hat is as good as yours. — I am 
as old as you. — Whence came this dog ? Thence, 
whence you see that man issuing. — Whither are you 
going ? Thither, whither that dog is running. — If any 
man says this he is mistaken. — One to his farm, and 
another to his merchandise. — I know neither of the two 
men. — Any one could do as well. — Somebody has 
stolen my knife. — This is another's fault, not mine. — 
There is no fear of God before their eyes. — What is 
every one's business is nobody's business. 

Model. — That man is cowardly^ &;c. : that and this 
are demonstrative pronouns, the one referring to the 
more remote and the other to the nearer person ; one is 
an indefinite pronoun used instead of man. 



ACCIDENCE, OR CHANGES IN WORDS. 63 

Correct these exarrvples, 

2, Give me them boots. — Them are the men which 
I you are after. — George, you may hold yourselves in 
readiness to be called. — Here are six apples, you may 
I have either of them. — Who of you three did the mis- 
I chief? I am the one what did the mischief. — These 
are the oxen who tread the corn. — Them apples are 
rtij. — You may have the one or the other of them four 
nuts. 

Model. — Give me them hoots. This should be. Give 
me those boots, since them is not used adjectively, but 
only substantively. 



SECTION III. 

of the adjective (^ 9. 2), 

§ 20. Comparison of Adjectives. 

Q. What change do adjectives undergo ? 

1. Adjectives (including Participles and Numerals) 
are not varied to express gender, number, and case, but, 
with the exception of numerals, they undergo a species 
of change called Comparison^ for the purpose of express- 
ing different degrees of quality. 

Q. How do the three degrees of comparison arise 1 

2. As an object may be considered in respect to its 
qualities, not only by itself, but also in comparison with 
another object, or all other objects, the adjective may 
express (relatively) three degrees of quality ; viz. the 



64 ETYMOLOGY, 

quality of an object considered by itself (the Positive 
Degree)^ its quality compared with that of another object 
(the Comparative Degree)^ and with the same quality in 
all other objects (the Superlative Degree), Hence we 
call an object by itself great ; in reference to another, 
with which it is compared, greater ; and in comparison 
with all others, greatest. Thus : — 

Positive, great ; Comparative, greater ; Superlative, 
greatest. 

Rem. 1. The comparative, then, should be used onljp 
where two things or parties are compared, the superlative 
where one thing is compared with all others of the same class ;) 
as, Caesar was braver than Pompey ; Washington is the most 
illustrious of American Presidents (it would be improper to 
say of French Presidents, as he does not belong to that., 
class) . 

Q. What adjectives are compared by er and est 1 

3. Adjectives of one syllable (and generally those of) 
two syllables ending in ly and le) form the comparative 
by adding er, and the superlative by adding est^ to the 
positive. 

Rem. 2. In annexing these endings the final y of the posi- 
tive is changed into i; as, lofty, lofti-er, lofti-est. Also, when^ 
the positive ends in e, only r and st are added ; as, able, abler f^ 
ablest, 

Q. How are most other adjectives compared ? 

4. Most other adjectives express the comparative and 
superlative by placing the adverbs more^ for the com- 
parative, and most^ for the superlative, before the posi* 
tive ; as, righteous, more righteous, most righteous, ■ 



ACCIDENCE, OR CHANGES IN WORDS. 



65 



Q. What difference between ancient and modern usage 1 
Rem. 3. In the ancient forms of the language, fewer 
adjectives are compared by more and most than at present. 
Thus, we find in Milton virtuousest, famousest, andentest, 
Sic, instead of most virtuous, &c., which is the modern prac- 
tice, except in writers of the Carlyle school. 

Compare these irregular adjectives, 

5. There are the following adjectives of irregular 
i comparison : — 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative, 


Good 


Better 


Best 


Bad (evil, ill) 


Worse 


Worst 


Little 


Less 


Least 


jMany (much) 


More 


Most 


Near 


Nearer 


Nearest (next) 


Late 


Later (latter) 


Latest (last) 


Old 


Older (elder) 


Oldest (eldest) 


Far 


Farther (further) 


Farthest (furthest). 



Q. How do most of these irregularities arise '? 

Rem. 4. Most of the irregularities arise from the different 
degrees being derived from different Anglo-Saxon roots, which 
have become obsolete in their other forms. Some of the 
double forms differ in sense, especially, farther, further, and 
farthest, furthest. Farther means more distant, while further 
(coming from fore) means more in front, more forward. 

f,.Q. What other irregular adjectives, and how compared ? 

6. Finally, there are the following irregular forms, in 
which the positive (and in some cases the comparative) 
is expressed adverhially : — 



66 




i 

ETYMOLOGY. ^ 


Positive. 




Comparative. 


Superlative. 


Beneath 




Nether 


Nethermost 


Low 




Lower 


Lowermost 


Under 






Undermost 


Behind (hind] 


Hinder 


Hindmost (hindermost) 


Up 




Upper 


Upmost (uppermost) 


In 




Inner 


Inmost (innermost) 



Before Former (of time) Foremost 

Topmost. 

Q. What of words which express the highest degree of quality 
in the positive ? 

Rem. 5. Words which in their very nature express the 
highest degree of a quality in the positive form, properly, can- 
not be compared ; still we find in good authors certain compar- 
atives and superlatives of such words ; as. Sup. Extremest 
(from extreme); Sup. chief est ; Comp. more perfect; Sup. 
most perfect. This arises from a desire to give intensity to 
the expression. 

Q. How is the superlative of eminence expressed ? 

Rem. 6. What is called the superlative of eminence is ex- 
pressed in our language by very before the positive degree of 
the adjective ; as, a very distinguished man. 

Q. In what other way are comparatives and superlatives af- 
fected ? 

Rem. 7. The comparative and superlative (and often the 
positive) are further strengthened or weakened by the words 
much, far ^ still, considerably, little, somewhat, no, not at all. 

Q. What of the comparison of adverbs ? 

Rem. 8. Some adverbs, also, are compared. Those which 
are derived from adjectives by adding ly are compared by pre- 
fixing more and most, others (as far as compared at all) by 



ACCIDENCE, OR CHANGES IN WORDS. 67 

adding er and est; as, cheerfully, more cheerfully, most cheer- 
fully ; soon, soon-er, soon-est. For the treatment of adverbs 
see ^31. 

Exercise XV. 

Compare these adjectives, and give the rules. 

Rough, rude, simple, manly, courageous, revengeful, 
mighty, idle, bright, cloudy, lowery, light, easy, lofty, 
flexible, vindictive, sleepy, sweet, sour, solid, florid, 
rudely, loved, adorned, brilliant, beautiful, homely, pre- 
cious, spiteful, hateful, churhsh, savage. 

Model. — Rough : rough is a monosyllable, and 
hence is compared by adding er and est ; thus, roughs 
rough-er^ rough-est, 

§ 21. Numeral Adjectives, or Numerals (§ 9. E. 1). 

Q. What are the cardinals ? 

1. Numerals expressing hoio many^ are called Cardi- 
nal or Principal Numbers ; as, one^ two., three, &c. 

Q. How are compound numbers expressed 1 

Rem. 1. From twenty to a hundred, in expressing the com- 
pound numbers, the smaller number is generally placed after 
the larger ivithout '' and^\' as, twenty-one, fifty-five (occasion- 
*ally, also, one-and-twenty , &c.) ; but after a hundred the 
smaller number is always placed last ivith '' and^'' before it; 
as, a hundred and twenty-five. 

Q. What the ordinals ? 

2. Numerals expressing lohich in order., which in a 
series^ are called Ordinal Numerals ; as, first, second, 
third, fourth, &c. 



68 ETYMOLOGY. 

Q. How are the ordinals derived ? 

Rem. 2. The ordinals (after third) are derived from the 
cardinals by adding th, in each case ; as, fourth (from four), 
sixth (from six). In compound numbers this th is added to 
the last part of the compound ; as, sixty-seventh, one hundred 
and ffty-ninth, &c. 

Q. What the distributives 1 

3. Distributive Numerals^ or those which state how 
many are taken at a time, are expressed by a repetition 
of the cardinals, either with or without ly, or by the plu- 
ral form of the cardinals with ly ; as, two and two, or 
two hy two, or hy twos, &c. 

Q. What of the position of first with cardinals ? 

Rem. 3. There has been much dispute as to which is the 
more correct form of expression, the first three, &;c., or the 
three first. There can be but little doubt, I think, that, in the 
ordinary sense of the phrase, the latter is the more correct ex- 
pression, although usage is not uniform. When first stands 
before three, it expresses a combined idea with it, and contrasts 
the first three with some other three, but when first follows 
three, first has a predicative sense, as it is called (see ^ 57. 7), 
and makes the expression equivalent to the three which stand 
first, which is what is commonly meant by the expression. 
Thus we find in Middleton, " the five first centuries " ; and in 
Cowper, '' the four first books " ; and in Macaulay, *' the six 
first kings." 

Q. What the multiplicatives ? 

4. Numerals which express how many times one thing 
exceeds another, or how many times it is multiplied into 
itself, are called Multiplicative Numerals ; as, douhle, 
twofold, triple, threefold, fourfold, &c. Single may 
be considered as the first of this series. 



ACCIDENCE, OR CHANGES IN WORDS. 69 

Q. What are substantive numerals ? 

5. A few numerals are nouns ; as, wiit, pair^ couple^ 
dozen, score, and sometimes hundred, thousand, million, 
&c. 

Q. What of the plural of substantive numerals ? 

Rem. 4. As these substantive numerals (except unit) im- 
ply a plurality, they do not generally take a plural form after 
other numerals ; as, ** six pair of oxen," '' five dozen of eggs." 
So also head, yoke, sail; as, five head of cattle ; a fleet of a 
hundred sail. We sometimes, too (but incorrectly, I must 
think), find pound and foot used thus ; as, '^ the possessor of 
two thousand pound a year " ; '^ the rod is six foot long." 

Q. What are adverbial numerals ? 

6. Numerals which answer the question how often ? 
are called Numeral Adverhs ; as, once, twice, thrice, 
four times, &c. The ordinal numeral adverbs are, 
first {firstly, in the first place), secondly, thirdly, &;c. 

Rem. 5. There are also certain words which denote num- 
ber or qvLsntity indefinitely ; as, some, few, many (sometimes 
used with a singular noun), much (expressing quantity), little, 
all, manifold. These are called Indefinite Numerals. 

Exercise XVI. 

Classify these numerals. 

Thirty, sixthly, little, by threes, tenfold, forty-seven, 
fiftieth, ninth, manifold, quadruple, ten times, tenthly, 
dozen. 

Model. — Thirty : thirty is a cardinal number, be- 
cause it expresses how many. 



70 ETYMOLOGY. 

SECTION lY. 
of the verb (§ 8. 4). 

§ 22, State Forms of the Verb (Voices). 

Q. What is the active form of the verb, and how are active and 
intransitive verbs distinguished ? 

1. The Active Form^ in which the subject appears in 
an active state, i. e. as doings sayings thinkings &c., 
something ; as, I (the subject) strike^ thinks run^ sleep^ 
&;c. The action of the subject may either be confined 
to itself, so that no substantive or other word is required 
after the verb to complete the sense (or only a noun with 
a preposition before it), in which case the verb is called 
an intransitive or neuter verb ; or the action may pass 
over or end upon an object, which is expressed by a 
noun without a preposition, when it is called a transitive 
active verb, or simply an active or transitive verb. 
Thus, intrans. : I grow ^ walk^ sleep ^ sit (on the ground), 
&c. ; trans, : I strike a horse, write a book, &c. 

Q. What do intransitive verbs sometimes take ? 

Rem. 1. Intransitive verbs may take an adverb after them 
(as, he sleeps soundly), or a noun of a kindred meaning ; as, 
he ran a race. So, too, where a preposition after an intransi- 
tive verb forms a part of the verbal idea, and renders the verb 
capable of the passive form, the verb and preposition together 
should be considered as a compound transitive verb; as, to 
laugh at one {pass, one is laughed at), to smile upon, &c. 

Q. What are passive verbs ? 

2. The Passive Form^ in which the subject appears 



ACCIDENCE, OR CHANGES IN WORDS. 71 

in a suffering state, or as receiving the action of another ; 
as, I am struck (by some one). The passive is derived 
from the active form, and belongs only to transitive verbs. 

Q. What of the reflexive action ? 

Rem. 2. There is no special form of the verb, in English, 
to denote the action of a subject upon itself, but this relation is 
expressed by the active verb taken v^ith a reflexive pronoun. 

§ 23. Time Forms of the Verb (Tenses). 
Q. What is the present tense ? 

1. The Present Tense^ or that form of the verb em- 
ployed by a writer (or speaker) in expressing an action 
as taking place at the time he writes, or has in his mind 
as present, i. e. his present time ; as, I love^ do love^ am 
loving. 

q. What the perfect ? 

2. The Perfect Tense^ or that form of the verb by 
which a writer expresses a past action as completed at 
(and generally as continued up to) the time in which he 
writes, i. e. his present ; as, I have written, 

Q. What the imperfect ? 

3. The Imperfect Tense^ or that form of the verb by 
which a writer expresses an indefinite past action^ in re- 
lation to his present ; as, he came (whether yesterday, 
day before, or some other day). 

Q. What the pluperfect? 

4. The Pluperfect Tense^ which represents a past ac- 
tion as completed at or before some other past action; 
as, he had written the letter when I arrived. 



72 ETYMOLOGY. 

Q. What the future? 

5. The Future Tense ^ which represents the action as 
future from the present time of the writer ; as, I shall 
write^ I will go, 

Q. What the future perfect ? 

6. The Future Perfect Tense^ which represents the 
action as completed in future time^ in relation to the writ- 
er ; as, I shall have loritten the letter before you return. 

Q. How are the tenses classified ? 

Rem. It will be seen, therefore, that for each of the three 
grand divisions of time, — present, past, and future, — there 
are two tenses, one representing the. action as indefinite and 
unlimited, and the other as definite and completed. To the 
former class belong the Present, Imperfect, and Future (some- 
times called Relative Tenses) , and to the latter, the Perfect, 
Pluperfect, and Future Perfect {Absolute Tenses), As the 
Imperfect and Pluperfect are employed in relating what is 
past, they are called historical tenses , while the others are 
cdAled principal tenses (Pres., Perf., Fut., Fut. Perf.). 

Exercise XVII. (on §§22,23.) 

Give the voice and tense of the verbs in these examples. 

I run. — He strikes. — The boy is bitten. — The tim- 
ber rots. — The news came. — The mail will arrive 
soon. — The letter will have been finished. — The dog 
will be killed. — The fatted calf has been killed. — For- 
tune smiles upon her favorites. — He went into the 
country yesterday, and will return to-morrow. — He 
had completed the business when I arrived. — I am tor- 
tured by pain. — I have been harassed in every way. 



ACCIDENCE, OR CHANGES IN WORDS. 73 

Model. — I run. Run is a verb in the active tbrm (or 
an active verb), because the subject (I) appears in an 
active state. 

§24, Mode Forms of the Verb (Mood or Mode). 

Q. What is the Indicative Mode ? 

1. The Indicative Mode., or that form of the verb, in 
each of the tenses, which is employed in stating facts., 
realities., or what the writer views as such ; as, I write., 
I will urrite, &;c. 

Q. What the Subjunctive or Potential ? 

2. The Suhjunctive or Potential Mode (used mostly in 
subordinate or subjoined clauses, and hence the name 
subjunctive), or that form of the verb employed in ex- 
pressing conceptions^ suppositions ., admissions., pgssihili- 
ties ; as, if he were alive ; he may come or not ; he 
might he happy., if he would, 

Q. What are the two classes of ideas, and how expressed ? 

Rem. 1. Thought embraces two classes of ideas, those 
which stand for facts in the mind, and those which are mere 
mental conceptions, used as accessories of the principal ideas. 
Classes of ideas so distinct, of course, should be expressed by 
different forms of the verb. In the Latin and Greek languages 
those of one class are expressed by the indicative mode, and 
those of the other by the subjunctive ; but in English, those of 
the latter class are expressed either by the potential mode, or 
after if, though, although, whether, &c., by the subjunctive, or, 
more frequently, the indicative. In the present form of the 
English language, the forms called the subjunctive mode 
are but little used, even after the above particles, and only in 
the present tense, and the imperfect were, wert. 



74 ETYMOLOGY. 

Q. What the Imperative Mode ? 

3. The Imperative Mode^ which is employed in ex- 
pressing directions^ commands^ and other direct injunc^ 
tions of the will ; as, hear thou ! strike I 

Q. What is a command often equivalent to 1 

Rem. 2. A command, according to our relations to the in- 
dividual and the thing commanded, is often little more than a 
request, permission, or exhortation, especially when expressed 
by let, which, indeed, is more subjunctive than imperative. 
When the pronoun is expressed with the imperative, it is 
placed after it ; as, hear thou, 

Q. What the Infinitive Mode, and why so called ? 

4. The Infinitive Mode,, which expresses the abstract 
or general idea of the verb without reference to any par- 
ticular subject, and without any other limitation ; hence 
its name {infinite or unlimited). It is usually preceded 
by to^ which is really a part of the verbal form, and 
serves the same purpose as a special ending in other lan- 
guages ; as, to strike^ to hear^ &c. 

Q. When is to omitted before the Infinitive ? 

Rem. 3. To is usually omitted before the infinitive after 
the verbs see, hear, feel, hid, do, dare, make, need, and the po- 
tential auxiliary verbs ; as, hid him come {i.e. to come), let him 
come (to come), &c. 

Q. What the Participle, and of how many kinds ? 

5. The Participle,, also, like the Infinitive, is unlimited 
in its character, and presents the idea of the verb under 
the form and relations of an adjective ; as, the blooming 



ACCIDENCE, OR CHANGES IN WORDS. 75 

rose ; I saw the rose blooming. Both the active and 
passive voices have a present and a perfect participle ; 
^nd besides, there is an indefinite past participle used in 
the compound forms of both the active and passive. 
Thus : Act.^ Pres. loving^ Perf. having loved ; Pass,^ 
Pres. being loved^ Perf. having been loved, and Past, 
loved (used only in combination). 

Rem. 4. The Future, both of the Infinitive and the Par- 
ticiple, is expressed by a periphrasis ; as, Part, being about to 
love, intending to love; Infin. to be about to love, &c. 

§ 25. Number and Person of the Verb. 
Q. What is the form of the first person ? 

1. The form for ^e first person singular and the first 
person plural, in each of the tenses, is the same ; as, I 
love, we love ; I may love, we may love, &c. 

Rem. 1. The person of the verb depends upon the person 
of the noun or pronoun which designates its subject. 

Q. What the second ? 

2. The second person singular is formed from the 
first by adding to it est {st, when the first ends in e or 
ed), and the second person plural is the same as the 
first ; as, thou love-st, you love. 

Rem. 2. For the use of you for thou, see ^16, Rem. 2. 

Q. What the third ? 

3. The third person singular Present is formed by 
adding 5 (old English th) to the first person ; but in the 
other tenses in the singular, and in all the tenses in the 



76 ETYMOLOGY. 

plural, it is the same as the first person ; as, he loves^ 
they love ; he loved^ they loved. 

Q. What of the Subjunctive forms ? 

Rem. 3. These rules for the personal forms apply only to 
the Indicative. The Subjunctive, as far as it has any special 
form (see ^24, Rem. 1), has all three persons in both numbers 
alike, except wert, the second person singular Imperfect Sub- 
junctive of the verb to be. 

Q. What changes in firming the third person singular ? 

Rem. 4. In forming the third person singular Present, 
y preceded by a consonant is changed into ie before the s is 
added (as, fly, Jlies) , and when the verb ends in a consonant 
after which s could not be easily sonnded, es is added, just as 
in the plural of nouns (see ^ 13, 2. 1) ; as, I brush, he brushes, 
hiss, hisses, &c. For other changes in annexing the different 
verbal endings, see ^35. 5. 

Q. Which of the compound forms is inflected 1 

Rem. 5. In the tenses formed by the aid of auxiliary verbs 
the above inflections take place in the auxiliary which consti- 
tutes the first part of the compound form ; as, I have loved, 
thon hast loved, he has loved (have being the present of the 
auxiliary) . 

Exercise XVIII, (on §§ 24, 25.) 
Give the mode, number, and person of the verbs in these examples, 
I write. — The girls sang, and the boys danced. — I 
am wounded. — He may have the book, if he will. — 
We would be off, if we could. — Strike thou, but hear ! 
— Let us go hence. — We will go, if you will go with 
us. — Time destroys all things. — Time is money. — 
Art is long. — We are devoured by insects. 



ACCIDENCE, OR CHANGES IN WORDS. 77 

Model. — I write. Write is a verb in the indicative 
mode, because it expresses the action as a /ac/, and of 
the first person singular, because the pronoun which 
agrees with it is of the first person singular. 

§ 26. Formation of the Tenses. 

Q. What are the three principal parts of a verb, and how 
formed 1 

1. The three principal parts of a verb are the Pres- 
ent^ the Imperfect^ and the Past Participle, The two 
latter are formed from the former, either by adding ed 
or d; or by simply changing the radical vowel of the 
Present in the Imperfect, and adding en or n in the 
Participle, and sometimes changing the vowel also ; as, 
Pres. love, Imperf. loved ^ Past Part, loved ^ or, Pres. eat 
Imperf. ate^ Past Part, eaten. 

Q. What is the last word in the compound forms 1 

2. In all the compound tenses (including all the tenses 
of the passive, and all of the active except the Pres. 
and Imperf.), the last word in the compound form is 
some part of the principal verb, viz. the Past Part, 
throughout the passive, and in all the tenses of the active 
expressing completed action (see §23, Rem.) ; as, I am 
loved^ I shall be loved^ I have loved^ to have loved^ &;c. 
In the other compound forms of the active voice (viz. 
the Fut., the Pres., and Imperf. Potent.), the Present form 
of the principal verb stands last ; as, I shall love^ I may 
love^ might love^ &;c. 

Q. In what mode is the verb after shall^ &c. ? 

Rem. 1. The principal verb in these forms after shall, will, 



78 ETYMOLOGY. 

may^ can, could, &c. , is strictly in the Infinitive without the 
sign to (see ^ 24, Rem. 3), as in the German ; but these verbs 
are so closely combined with the principal verbs, in our lan- 
guage, that they form a species of auxiliaries. 

Q. What is the last word but one in the compound forms of the 
passive 1 

3. In all the tenses of the passive expressing com- 
pleted action, the last word hut one in the compound 
form is the Past Participle of the verb to be (viz. been) ; 
in the other tenses of the passive it is either the Present 
or Imperfect of the same verb (viz. am, Z>e, was) ; as, I 
had been loved, to have been loved ; I am loved, I shall 
be loved, I may be loved, I might be loved, &c. 

Q. What is the last word but one in the compound forms of the 
active expressing completed action, and the last but two in the 
passive 1 

4. In all the tenses expressing completed action, the 
last loord but one in the active, and the last but two in 
the passive, is have or had ; as, 1 have loved, I had loved, 
I shall have loved, I may have loved ; I had been loved, 
I shall have been loved, &c. 

Q. What is the first word in the Future and Potential forms ? 

5. The ^r5^ word in each of the Future forms, both in 
the active and passive, is shall or will^ and in the Poten- 
tial, may^ can^ must^ mighty could^ would, or should, ac- 
cording to the tense and sense. 

Q. What are the progressive and emphatic forms ? 

Rem. 2. The above rules for the formation of the tenses 
apply only to the common forms of the verb. There is an ac- 
tive form specially appropriated to express progressive action, 



ACCIDENCE, OR CHANGES IN WORDS. 79 

which is formed throughout like the passive, except that the 
present participle takes the place of the past participle ; as, 
I am writings I have been writing, &c. There is, also, in the 
Pres. and Imperf. active, a form made up of do and did placed 
before the form of the Present (properly the Infinitive) of the 
principal verb, expressing the idea of the verb with emphasis 
(the emphatic form) ; as, I do love, I did love, &c. 

§ 27. Conjugation. 
Q. What is conjugation 1 

1. The inflection of the verb to express the different 
relations described in the preceding divisions, and ac- 
cording to the principles there laid down, is called Con- 
jugation^ and according as verbs agree or disagree in 
the formation of their principal parts (see §26. 1) they 
are said to be of the same or of different conjugations. 

Q. How many conjugations are there, how do they differ, and 
what called ? 

2. Accordingly, there are two conjugations of verbs in 
English, corresponding to the two different methods of 
forming the Imperf. and Past Part, described in § 26. 1. 
Those forming these parts by a vowel-change in the Im- 
perfect and the addition of en in the Participle belong to 
the Ancient Conjugation^ and those forming them by 
ed^ to the Modern Conjugation, 

Q. What the origin of the two conjugations, and by what other 
names called 1 

Rem. According to the present tendency of the language, 
the verb develops itself after the Modern Conjugation (hence 
its name) ; but many of the older verbs follow the Ancient 
Conjugation. Both forms of conjugation are of Anglo-Saxon 



80 ETYMOLOGY. 

origin, but the modern English has adopted the one and re- 
jected the other. The two conjugations are sometimes distin- 
guished as the 8trong and the Weak^ since the one requires 
no addition in forming the Imperfect, while the other does. 

§ 28. Ancient Conjugation. 

I. Auxiliary Verbs. 

Q. Why do the auxiliaries belong to the ancient conjugation ? 

Some of the auxiliary verbs are irregular and defec- 
tive, but as most of them form their Imperfect by a 
vowel-change, they may be classed under the Ancient 
Conjugation. 

1) Conjugation of the verbs to he and to have: — 

INDICATIVE MODE, 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Sing. 1. I am I have 

2. Thou art Thou hast 

3. He (she, it) is He has 
Plur. 1. We are We have 

2. You are You have 

3. They are. They have. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Sing. 1. I was I had 

2. Thou wast Thou hadst 

3. He was He had 
Plur. 1. We were We had 

2. You were You had 

3. They were. They had. 



ACCIDENCE, OR CHANGES IN WORDS. 81 

FUTURE TENSE. 

Sing, 1. I shall {or will) be I shall {or will) have 

2. Thou shalt {or wilt) be Thou shalt {or wilt) have 

3. He shall {or will) be He shall {or will) have 
Plur, 1. We shall {or will) be We shall {or will) have 

2. You shall {or will) be You shall {or will) have 

3. They shall {or will) be. They shall (or will) have. 

PERFECT TENSE. 

I Sing. 1. 1 have been I have had 

2. Thou hast been Thou hast had 

3. He has been He has had 
Plur, 1. We have been We have had 

2. You have been You have had 
j 3. They have been. They have had. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Sing. 1. 1 had been I had had 

2. Thou hadst been Thou hadst had 

3. He had been He had had 
iPhr, 1. We had been We had had 

2. You had been You had had 

3. They had been. They had had. 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 

Sing. 1. 1 shall have been I shall have had 

2. Thou wilt have been Thou wilt have had 

3. He will have been He will have had 
Plur, 1. We shall have been We shall have had 

2. You will have been You will have had 

3. They will have been. They will have had. 
6 



82 ETYMOLOaY. 



POTENTIAL MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 



Sing. 1. I may (can, &c.) be I may have 

2. Thou mayest be Thou mayest have 

3. He may be He may have 
Plur. 1. We may be We may have 

2. You may be You may have 

3. They may be. They may have. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Sing. 1. I might (could, &c.) be I might have 

2. Thou mightest be Thou mightest have 

3. He might be He might have 
Plur. 1. We might be We might have 

2. You might be You might have 

3. They might be. They might have. 

PERFECT TENSE. 

Sing. 1. I may have been I may have had 

2. Thou mayest have Thou mayest have had 

been 

3. He may have been He may have had 
Plur. 1. We may have been We may have had 

2. You may have been You may have had 

3. They may have been. They may have had. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Sing. 1. I might have been I might have had 

2. Thou mightest have Thou mightest have had 

been 

3. He might have been He might have had 



xlCCIDENCE, OR CHANGES IN WORDS. 83 

1 Plur. 1. We might have been We might have had 

2. You might have been You might have had 

3. They might have been. They might have had. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Sing, 1. if I be * If \ were 

2. If thou be If thou wert 

3. i/" he be If he were 
Plur, \, If we he ^ we were 

2. If you be If you were 

3. If they be. If they were. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Sing, 2. Be, or be thou Have, or have thou 

3. Let him be Let him have 

Plur, 2. Be ye or you Have ye or you 

3. Let them be. Let them have. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present Tense, To be. To have. 

Perfect Tense, To have been. To have had. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present, Being. Having. 

Past. Been. Had. 

Perfect, Having been. Having had. 

=^ The Indicative forms (aw, was^ &c.), also, are used after if^ 
though^ although ; and with have and all other verbs except 6e, this is 
generally the case (see § 24, Rem. 1). 



84 ETYMOLOGY. 

2) Conjugation of may^ can^ shall^ tvill^ must : — 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Sing, 1. I may, can, shall, will, must 

2. Thou mayest, canst, shalt, wilt, must 

3. He may, can, shall, will, must 
Plur, 1. We may, can, shall, will, must 

2. You may, can, shall, will, must 

3. They may, can, shall, will, must. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Sing, 1. I might, could, should, would 

2. Thou mightest, couldst, shouldst, wouldst 

3. He might, could, should, would 
Plur, 1. Wc might, could, should, would 

2. You might, could, should, would 

3. They might, could, should, would. 

Q. What is said of s in the end of the third person of these 
verbs ? 

Rem. 1. All these verbs, it will be observed, reject s in 
the ending of the third person singular, which is often the 
case, also, with need and dare^ when they are followed by the 
Infinitive without to, as these verbs are (see ^ 24, Rem. 3). 
But when will is not an auxiliary, but an independent verb, it 
takes s; as, he wills to go. 

Q. What is the difference in meaning and usage between these 
auxiharies ? 

Rem. 2. Of these verbs, may expresses liberty and per- 
mission ; can, possibility and power ; must, necessity ; shall 
and should imply duty, and hence, often, what is future or 
is destined to take place, since a sense of duty will be sure to 
prompt its performance ; while will and would imply 



ACCIDENCE, OR CHANGES IN WORDS. 85 

volition, and hence the futurity of an action, as depending 
upon the will. Simple futurity is expressed , in the first per- 
son by shall (or by should after a past tense), and in the 
second and third persons by will (also would, as above) ; 
in other cases these future forms either promise, command, or 
threaten; hence the error of the expression, '' I will drown, 
nobody shall save me." 

Q. What defective verbs are there ? 

Rem. 3. Ought, which is sometimes classed with these 
auxiliaries, is properly the imperfect of owe, and is used in the 
present and imperfect ; as, he ought to do it, or to have done 
it. For let, see ^24, Rem. 2. — There are also the defective 
forms quoth, Imperf., and wot, Pres. and Imperf. 



II. Principal Parts of Verbs of the Ancient Conjuga- 
tion, AND OF Irregular Verbs generally. 

Many verbs of both conjugations vary in some re- 
spects from the general form, and are therefore irregular. 

Q. What is the first class of irregular verbs ? 

1. Those which do not form their principal parts ac- 
"cording to either conjugation, but have all three parts 
alike ; as, Pres. shut, Imperf. shut, Part, shut, &c. 

Q. What the second ? 
i. 2. Such as vary from the Present in the other parts 
only by substituting in the Imperf. and Part, t, in the 
place of (Z or Z of the Pres. ; as, Pres. gird, Imperf. 
girt. Part, girt ; spill, spilt, spilt, &c. 

Q. What the third ? 

3. Such as merely shorten the vowel of the Present 



86 



ETYMOLOGY. 



in the other parts ; as, Ueed^ hled^ hied ; or shorten it 
(either actually or in sound) and at the same time add 
f , instead of d ; as, Areep, kejpt^ kept ; deal^ dealt^ dealt ; 
and also leave^ left, left ; shoe, shod, shod ; hite, hit^ 
hit ; read, read (red), read (red). 

Q. What the fourth? 

4. Many verbs change the vowel in the Imperfect, but 
do not (in the present form of the language) take en in 
the Participle, but in many cases ed instead ; as, find, 
found, found {origmally founden), awake, awoke, awak' 
ed. Others, again, form the Participle in en, but with- 
out any vowel-change in the Imperfect, which takes the 
modern form ; as, shape, shaped, shapen. Thus we 
have the following ~ 

IRREGULAR VERBS. 



Present. 




Imperfect. 




Past Participle. 


Abide 




Abode 




Abode 


Am 




Was 




Been 


Arise 




Arose 




Arisen 


Awake 




Awoke ] 


a* 


Awaked 


Bake 




Baked 




Baken r 


Bear (to hring forth] 


Bore or 


Bare 


Born 


Bear {to carry) 


Bore or 


Bare 


Borne 


Beat 




Beat 




Beaten 


Become 




Became 




Become 


Begin 




Began 




Begun 


Behold 




Beheld 




Beheld 



^ R denotes that the part to which it is attached is formed also 
according to the modern or regular conjugation. 



ACCIDENCE, OR CHANGES IN WORDS. 



87 



1 Present. 


Imperfect. 


Past Participle. 


Bend 




Bent R 


Bent R 


Bereave 




Bereft r 


Bereft r 


Beseech 




Besought 


Besought 


Bid 




Bade or Bid 


Bidden 


Bind 




Bound 


Bound 


Bite 




Bit 


Bitten, Bit 


Bleed 




Bled 


Bled 


Blow 




Blew 


Blown 


Break 




Broke or Brake 


Broken 


Breed 




Bred 


Bred 


Bring 




Brought 


Brought 


Build 




Built R 


Built R 


Burst 




Burst 


Burst 


Buy 




Bought 


Bought 


Cast 




Cast 


Cast 


Catch 




Caught R 


Caught R 


Chide 




Chid, Chode 


Chidden, Chid 


Choose 




Chose 


Chosen 


Cleave {to 


adhere) Clave r 


Cleaved 


Cleave {tc 


) split) 


Clove, Clave, Cleft Cloven, Cleft 


Cling 




Clung 


Clung 


Climb 




Clomb R 


Climbed 


Clothe 




CladR 


CladR 


Come 




Came 


Come 


Cost 




Cost 


Cost 


Crow 




Crew R 


Crowed 


Creep 




Crept 


Crept 


Cut 




Cut 


Cut 


Dare {to venture) 


Durst R 


Dared 


Dare {to c 


hallenge) is regular. 





88 



Deal 
Dig 

Do 

Draw 

Drive 

Drink 

Dwell 

Eat 

Fall 

Feed 

Feel 

Fight 

Find 

Flee 

Fling 

Fly 

Forego 

Forget 

Forsake 

Freeze 

Freight 

Get 

Gild 

Gird 

Give 

Go 

Grave 

Grind 

Grow 

Have 



ETYMOLOGY. 




Imperfect. 


Past Participle. 


Dealt R 


Dealt R 


Dug R 


Dug R 


Did 


Done 


Drew 


Drawn 


Drove 


Driven 


Drank 


Drunk, Drank 


Dwelt R 


Dwelt R 


Ate 


Eaten, Eat 


Fell 


Fallen 


Fed 


Fed 


Felt 


Felt 


Fought 


Fought 


Found 


Found 


Fled 


Fled 


Flung 


Flung 


Flew 


Flown 




Foregone 


Forgot 


Forgotten 


Forsook 


Forsaken 


Froze 


Frozen 


Freighted 


Freighted, Fraught 


Gat or Got 


Gotten or Got 


Gilt R 


GiltR 


Girt R 


Girt R 


Gave 


Given 


Went 


Gone 


Graved 


Graven r 


Ground 


Ground 


Grew 


Grown 


Had 


Had 



ACCIDENCE, OR CHANGES 


IN WORDS. 81 


Present. 


Imperfect. 


Past Participle. 


Hang 


Hung R 


Hung R 


Hear 


Heard 


Heard 


Heave 


Hove R 


Hoven r 


Help 


Helped 


Holpen R 


Hew 


Hewed 


Hewn R 


] Hide 


Hid 


Hidden or Hid 


Hit 


Hit 


Hit 


1 Hold 


Held 


Holden or Held 


' Hurt 


Hurt 


Hurt 


Keep 


Kept 


Kept 


Kneel 


Knelt R 


Knelt R 


Knit 


Knit or Knitted 


Knit or Knitted 


Know 


Knew 


Known 


Lade 


Laded 


Laden 


Lay- 


Laid 


Laid 


Lead 


Led 


Led 


Leave 


Left 


Left 


Lend 


Lent 


Lent 


Let 


Let 


Let 


Lie {to recline) 


Lay- 


Lain or Lien 


Lift 


Lifted or Lift 


Lifted or Lift 


Light 


Lighted or Lit 


Lighted or Lit 


Load 


Loaded 


Loaded or Loaden 


Lose 


Lost 


Lost 


Make 


Made 


Made 


Mean 


Meant r 


Meant r 


Meet 


Met 


Met 


Mow 


Mowed 


Mown 


Pay 


Paid 


Paid 


Put 


Put 


Put 



yo 


ETYMOLOGY. 




Present. 


Imperfect 




Past Participle. 


Quit 


Quit or < 


Quitted 


Quit, Quitted 


Read 


Read 




Read 


Rend 


Rent 




Rent 


Ride 


Rode or 


Rid 


Rid or Ridden 


Rid 


Rid 




Rid 


Ring 


Rang or 


Rung 


Rung 


Rise 


Rose 




Risen 


Rive 


Rived 




Riven 


Roast 


Roasted 




Roasted or Roast 


Rot 


Rotted 




Rotten R 


Run 


Ran 




Run 


Saw 


Sawed 




Sawn R 


Say 


Said 




Said 


See 


Saw 




Seen 


Seek 


Sought 




Sought 


Seethe 


Seethed 


or Sod 


Sodden 


Sell 


Sold 




Sold 


Send 


Sent 




Sent 


Set 


Set 




Set 


Shake 


Shook 




Shaken 


Shape 


Shaped 




Shapen r 


Shave 


Shaved 




Shaven r 


Shear 


Shore r 




Shorn r 


Shed 


Shed 




Shed 


Shine 


Shone r 




Shone r 


Shew 


Shewed 




Shewn 


Show 


Showed 




Shown 


Shoe 


Shod 




Shod 


Shoot 


Shot 




Shot 


Shrink 


Shrank or Shrunk Shrunk 



ACCIDENCE, OR CHANGES 


[N WORDS. 91 


Present 


Imperfect, 


Past Participle. 


Shred 


Shred 


Shred 


Shut 


Shut 


Shut 


Sing 


Sang or Sung 


Sung 


Sink 


Sank or Sunk 


Sunk 


Sit 


Sat 


Sat or Sitten 


1 Slay 


Slew 


Slain 


Sleep 


Slept 


Slept 


i Slide 


Slid 


Slidden or Slid 


,' Sling 


Slang or Slung 


Slung 


Slink 


Slank or Slunk 


Slunk 


j Slit 


SlitR 


Slit or Slitted 


Smite 


Smote 


Smitten, Smit 


Sow 


Sowed 


Sown R 


Speak 


Spoke or Spake 


Spoken 


' Speed 


Sped 


Sped 


1 Spend 


Spent 


Spent 


, Spill 


Spilt R 


Spilt R 


' Spin 


Spun or Span 


Spun 


Spit 


Spat or Spit 


Spitten or Spit 


Split 


Split or Splitted 


Split, Splitted 


Spread 


Spread 


Spread 


Spring 


Sprang or Sprun 


g Sprung 


Stand 


Stood 


Stood 


Steal 


Stole 


Stolen 


Stick 


Stuck 


Stuck 


Sting 


Stung 


Stung 


Stink 


Stank or Stunk 


Stunk 


Stride 


Strode or Strid 


Stridden 


Strike 


Struck 


Struck or Stricken 


String 


Strung 


Strung 



^'4 


ETYMOLOGY. 




Present. 


Imperfect. 


Past Participle. 


Strive 


Strove 


Striven 


Strew or Strow 


Strewed, Strewed Strown r 


Swear 


Swore or Sware 


Sworn 


Sweat 


Sweat R 


Sweat R 


Sweep 


Swept 


Swept 


Swell 


Swelled 


Swelled or Swollen 


Swim 


Swam or Swum 


Swum 


Swing 


Swang or Swung 


Swung 


Take 


Took 


Taken 


Teach 


Taught 


Taught 


Tear 


Tore or Tare 


Torn 


Tell 


Told 


Told 


Think 


Thought 


Thought 


Thrive 


Throve r 


Thriven r 


Throw 


Threw 


Thrown 


Thrust 


Thrust 


Thrust 


Tread 


Trod 


Trodden, Trod 


Wax 


Waxed 


Waxen r 


Wash 


Washed 


Washed 


Wear 


Wore 


Worn 


Weave 


Wove 


Woven, Wove 


Weep 


Wept 


Wept 


Win 


^ Won 


Won 


Wind 


Wound 


Wound 


Work 


Wrought R 


Wrought R 


Wring 


Wrung R 


Wrung R 


Write 


Wrote 


Written, Writ 


Writhe 


Writhed 


Writhen. 



ACCIDENCE, OR CHANGES IN WORDS. 93 

§ S9. Modern Conjugation. 

1. Synopsis, or forms of the first person singular, of 
the verb to love : — 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present. Imperf. Future. 

Active, I love I loved I shall love 

Passive, I am loved I was loved I shall be loved 



I 



Pluperf. Future Perf. 

Active, I have loved I had loved I shall have loved. 

Passive, I have been I had been I shall have been 
loved loved loved. 

POTENTIAL mode. 

Present. Imperf. Perfect. 

Active, I may love I might love I may have 

loved 
Passive, I may be loved I might be loved I may have 

been loved 

Pluperf 
Active, I might have loved. 
Passive, I might have been loved. 

2. Full conjugation of the verb to love : — 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

present tense. 
Active, Passive, 

Sing, 1. I love I am loved 

2. Thou lovest Thou art loved 

3. He (she, it) loves He is loved 



94 ETYMOLOGY. 

Active. Passive, 

Plur. 1. We love We are loved 

2. You love You are loved 

3. They love. They are loved. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Sing* 1. I loved I was loved 

2. Thou lovedst Thou wasl loved 

3. He loved He was loved 
Plur, 1. We loved We were loved 

2. You loved You were loved 

3. They loved. They were loved. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

Sing, 1. I shall (will) love I shall be loved 

2. Thou shalt (wilt) love Thou wilt be loved 

3. He shall (will) love He will be loved 
Plur. 1. We shall (will) love We shall be loved 

2. You shall (will) love You will be loved 

3. They shall (will) love. They will be loved. 

PERFECT TENSE. 

Sing, 1. I have loved I have been loved 

2. Thou hast loved Thou hast been loved 

3. He has loved He has been loved 
Plur, 1. We have loved We have been loved 

2. You have loved You have been loved 

3. They have loved. They have been loved. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Sing, 1. I had loved I had been loved 

2. Thou hadst loved Thou hadst been loved 

3. He had loved He had been loved 



ACCIDENCE, OR CHANGES IN WORDS. 95 

Active, Passive. 

Plur, 1. We had loved We had been loved 

2. You had loved You had been loved 

3. They had loved. They had been loved. 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 

Sing, 1. I shall have loved I shall have been loved 

2. Thou wilt have loved Thou wilt have been loved 

3. He will have loved He will have been loved 
Plur, 1. We shall have loved We shall have been loved 

2. You will have loved You will have been loved 

3. They will have loved. They will have been loved. 



POTENTIAL MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Sing. 1. I may (can, (fee.) love 1 may be loved 

2. Thou mayest love Thou mayest be loved 

3. He may love He may be loved 
Plur, 1. We may love We may be loved 

2. You may love You may be loved 

3. They may love. They may be loved. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Sing. 1. I might love I might be loved 

2. Thou mightest love Thou mightest be loved 

3. He might love He might be loved 
Plur. 1. We might love We might be loved 

2. You might love You might be loved 

3. They might love. They might be loved. 



96 



ETYMOLOGY. 



PERFECT TENSE. 



Active, 
Sing. 1. I may have loved 

2. Thou mayest have 

loved 

3. He may have loved 



Passive. 
I may have been loved 
Thou mayest have been 

loved 
He may have been loved . 



Plur, 1. We may have loved We may have been loved 

2. You may have loved You may have been loved 

3. They may have loved. They may have been loved. 



PLUPERFECT 

Sing. 1. 1 might have loved 

2. Thou mightest have 

loved 

3. He might have loved 
Plur. 1. We might have loved 

2. You might have loved 

3. They might have 

loved. 



TENSE. 

I might have been loved 
Thou mightest have been 

loved 
He might have been loved 

We might have been 

loved 
You might have been 

loved 
They might have been 

loved. 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Sing, 2. Love or love thou Be thou loved 

3. Let him love Let him be loved 

Plur. 2. Love, or love ye or you Be ye or you loved 

3. Let them love. Let them be loved. 



INFINITIVE MODE. 

Pres. To love To be loved 

Perf. To have loved To have been loved. 



ACCIDENCE, OR CHANGES IN WORDS. 97 

PARTICIPLES. 
Active, Passive, 

Pres, Loving Being loved 

Perf, Having loved Having been loved 

Past, Loved (used in the compound forms). 

Rem. 1. For the Subjunctive, see § 24, Rem. 1. 

Q. What is said of the use of different forms ? 

Rem. 2. It will be understood that in the Future either 
shall or will may be used, according to the sense to be ex- 
pressed, and in the Potential Mode can or must, instead of 
rnny, and could, would, or should, instead of might, as the sense 
demands. See ^28, Rem. 2. 

Q. What is the progressive, and what the emphatic form ? 

Rem. 3. There is also 3, progressive form in use through- 
out the active voice, formed like the passive, except that the 
present participle takes the place of the past participle : Pres. 
I am loving, Imperf. / was loving, &c. In the Pres. and 
Imperf. Act., also, there is an emphatic form made up of do 
and did placed before the infinitive of the principal verb ; as, 
Pres. I do love {thou dost love, &c.), Imperf. I did love {thou 
didst love, &c.). See ^ 26, Rem. 2. 

Q. With what intransitive verbs is am used for have ? 

Rem. 4. With a few intransitive verbs implying a change 
of place or state in the subject of the verb, am seems to be used 
instead of have, as in the German ; as, he is (or was) arrived, 
departed, come, fallen, &c., instead of, he has arrived, &c. ; 
as, *' Babylon the great is fallen " (for has fallen). The par- 
ticiple expresses the state in which a thing is. So, also, were 
and had are sometimes used for would be and would have; as, 
it were well if it were so ; I had praised him, if he had de- 
served it. 

7 



yo ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 30. Impersonal Verbs. 

Q. Of what two classes are impersonal verbs ? 

Impersonal verbs are of two kinds, those which de- 
scribe actions or states which can be referred to no par- 
ticular agent, and those which, in describing the actions 
and states of men and things, instead of taking these 
persons and things as subjects, take the pronoun it as a 
subject, and make the person or thing an object, or else 
the subject of a subordinate clause. Those of the first 
class are confined to certain operations of nature, and 
are never used (in a literal sense) except as im personals ; 
but those of the second class are of a more promiscuous 
character, and are many of them used personally, as well 
as impersonally. 

Q. What are the impersonals of the first class ? 

1. Impersonals expressing certain appearances or op' 
erations of nature ; as, 

It thunders It wets It dawns 

It lightens It snows It hails 

It rains It thaws It freezes. 

Q What of the second class ? 

2. Various verbs expressing some affection of the 
mind (followed by a personal pronoun), or propriety^ 
permission^ &;c. ; as, 

It repents me It is lawful It happens 

It grieves me It is proper It appears 

It concerns me It is fit It is evident 

It irks me It is permitted It seems 

It behooves me It is agreed It remains, &c. 



ACCIDENCE, OR CHANGES IN WORDS. 99 

Q,. What three peculiar forms are there ? 

Rem. 1. There are also the three forms, meseems, me- 
thinks, me listeth (lists), which are really impersonal verbs 
preceded by me and without it; as, meseems == it seems to me. 

Q. Is it proper to call the above verbs impersonal ? 

Rem. 2. As it is indefinite in these expressions, and rather 
jdemonstrative than personal (it being nearly equivalent to this 
or that), while the person (or thing) is made subordinate by 
the construction, there is no impropriety, as some have sup- 
posed, in calling the above verbs impersonals. 

Exercise XIX. (on §§ 28, 29, 30.) 

Crive the number, person, mode, tense, voice, and conjugation of 
the verbs in these examples, and distinguish the auxiliaries 
from the principal verbs, and also the impersonal verbs. 

I shall come. — He came and went. — The news flies 
from village to village. — The cock crows. — The frog 
croaks. — The boy may ride or walk. — The city is 
taken. — The enemy is beaten. — The ranks are bro- 
ken. — The child awoke. — The log is split. — The 
rocks are rent. — The lightning flashes. — It lightens 
and thunders. — The soldiers flee. — The horses leap. 
— It comes to pass. — The ducks swim. — He mounted 
the horse. — The rivers are swollen. — They cling to 
the crags. — I should like to know who has come. — I 
am going to breakfast. — The dinner hour has passed. — 
I can well conceive how this happened. — I shall never 
allow the claim. — I am determined to depart. 

Model. — I shall come. Shall come is a verb in the 
fut. tense, of the first person sing., to agree with its Nom. 
I; come is the principal verb, and shall the auxiliary. 



100 ETYMOLOGY. 

SECTION V. 
uninflected words, or particles. 

§ 31, Adverbs (§ 9. 5). 

Q. What is said of a few adverbs ? 

Introductory Rem. A few adverbs are compared by a 
change of termination (see §20, Rem. 8)» and hence are capa- 
ble of the same species of inflection as adjectives ; only a very 
few, however, are capable of even this change. Adverbs gen- 
erally qualify or limit a verb, but sometimes an adjective or 
another adverb. 

Q. What is the first class of adverbs'? 

1. Adverbs express the relation of manner. Adverbs 
expressing this relation are usually derived from adjec- 
tives by the addition of Zi/, and constitute by far the most 
numerous class of adverbs; as, sweetly (from sweet) ^ 
softly^ roughly^ &c. 

Q. The second class ? 

2. Adverbs express the relation of place; as, up- 
wards^ downwards^ hack^ yonder, below, above; here^ 
there, where, whence, whither, hither, &c. 

Rem. 1. Instead of whither, thither, hither, the forms 
where, there, here, are more commonly used after verbs of mo- 
tion; as, '^ where are you going? " for '^ whither are you go- 
ing?" 

Q. The third class ? 

3. Adverbs express the relation of time; as, daily ^ 
hourly, yesterday, again, often, always, ever, continual' 
ly, then, when, while, &c. 



ACCIDENCE, OR CHANGES IN WORDS. 101 

Q. What are the compounds with adverbs of time and place ? 

Rem. 2. There are various compounds formed from ad- 
verbs of time and place which should be noticed ; as, 1) the 
pronominal words arising from compounding here, there, where^ 
hence, thence, whence, with of, in, hy, with, for {fore), after, 
forth, &c., viz. hereof, thereby, therefore, &c. ; 2) the adver- 
bial forms arising from compounding where with else, any, no, 
some; as, elsewhere, anywhere, nowhere, somewhere; 3) various 
adverbial words ending in ward or wards, which imply motion 
in some direction; as, forward{s), backward{s), westward, 
southward, upward{s) , downward{s) , &c. 

Q. The fourth class ? 

4. Adverbs express intensity; as, rather^ too^ very^ 
greatly^ principally^ chiefly^ wholly^ quite^ only^ so 
(Mws), a5, &c. 

Q. The fifth class ? 

5. Adverbs affect the character or manner of an as- 
. sertion, and hence are called modal adverbs^ since they 

represent it as positive or negative^ definite or indefinite^ 
limited or unlimited^ or of an interrogative character ; 
as, yes^ no^ not^ verily^ truly^ undoubtedly^ certainly^ 
possibly, probably^ perhaps, perchance ; why 1 when ? 
where ? whence 7 whether^ &c. 

Q, What are some adverbial phrases ? 

Rem. 3. Many phrases, especially nouns governed by 
prepositions, are of the nature of adverbs, since they express 
the relations of time, place, or manner; as, on this side (== 
here), on that side (= there), of a sudden, at random, at pres- 
ent, of late, in general, &c. 



102 



ETYMOLOGY. 



§ 32. Prepositions (§ 9. 6). 

Q. When are prepositions used as adverbs ? 

The words in the following list are generally followed 
by a noun depending upon them, and are called Prepo- 
sitions^ but when they have no noun after them they are 
adverbs. 



Aboard 
About 
Above 

According to 
Across 
After 
Against 
Along 
Amid ^ 
Amidst ) 
Among ^ 
Amongst } 



Recite the table 

Athwart 
Before 
Behind 
Below 
Beneath 
Beside ^ 
Besides ) 
Between ) 
Betwixt ) 
Bevond 
By" 
Concerning 



Ai-ound, Round Down 
At During 



of Prepositions. 

For 
From 
In, Into 

Near 

Next 

Nigh 

Of 

Off 

On, Upon 

Over 

Over against 

Out of 

Regarding 

Respecting 



Save 

Since 

Through 

Throughout 

Till, Until 

To, Unto 

Touching 

Towards 

Under ^ 

Underneath ) 

Up 

With 

Within 

Without. 



Rem. 1. The preposition to is often added to near, next, 
and nigh; as, '' near ifo the house." So from often follows 
off; as, off from. Except is properly a verb in the imperative, 
or used for " if you except." Those ending in ing are par- 
ticiples, of which notwithstanding is used concessively like a 
conjunction (see ^49, Rem. 2). 

Rem. 2. Several phrases, consisting of a preposition and 
a noun followed by another preposition, have, as a whole, the 



ACCIDENCE, OR CHANGES IN WORDS. 103 

I 

force of prepositions ; as, on account of, in hehalf of, for the 
j sake of, &c. 

§ 33, Conjunctions (§ 9. 7). 

Conjunctions are of two classes : — 

Q. What are coordinate conjunctions, and what those of each 
class ? 

I. Coordinate Conjunctions^ or such as connect inde- 
pendent sentences. 

1. Copulative conjunctions : and^ also (and 5o, and 
so also)^ and not^ both — and^ not only — hut {hut also^ 
but even)^ as well — as, 

2. Adversative conjunctions : hut^ yet^ hut yet^ stilly 
nevertheless, 

3. Disjunctive conjunctions : either — or, neither — 
nor^ whether — or. 

4. Causal conjunctions : for^ and for ^ for also, 

5. Illative or Deductive conjunctions : accordingly^ 
consequently^ therefore^ wherefore^ thus^ hence^ thence; 
also on this account,, for this reason^ &c., which are of 
the nature of conjunctions. 

Q. What are subordinate conjunctions, and what those of each 
class ? 

11. Subordinate Conjunctions^ or such as connect a 
subordinate to a principal sentence. 

1. Conjunctions of place : where,, lohence^ whither, 

2. Conjunctions of time : when^ while,, as^ as long as^ 
since^ sooner than^ hefore, before that^ ere, after that, 
till, until. 

Rem. Most conjunctions of place and time are properly 



104 ETYMOLOGY. 

adverbs or prepositions, but since they express place and time 
only as points of union between actions, they have the force of 
conjunctions, and may be called conjunctive adverbs. 

3. Causal conjunctions : because, when, since,, seeing 
tJiat, 

4. Conditional conjunctions : if, if only, if not, pro- 
vided that, unless, except. 

5. Concessive conjunctions : though, although, even 
although, even if, however. 

6. Final conjunctions (expressing an end or purpose) : 
that, in order that, that not, in order that not. 

7. Consecutive conjunctions (denoting a sequence or 
succession) : so, that, so that, that not, so that not, hut 
that. 



Exercise XX. (on §§ 3i, 32, 33.) 

Name and classify the adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions in 
these examples. 

The boys play briskly and the girls sing sweetly. — 
The lambs play sportively in the fields. — The mail is 
expected hourly. — As the stage drove up, the inn-keeper 
appeared at the door. — Yonder come the cars. — Here 
lies the dead body in the gutter. — There stands the man 
before the church. — The child will surely die. — How 
can that be made to appear ? — Athens was a renowned 
city, and so was Rome. — He is poor, indeed, but virtu- 
ous. — True, he did not obtain my purse, but he tried to. 
— I know the man, for I have seen him often. — I will 
either conquer or die. — I have the power, and therefore 
I will use it. — The coach had left before I arrived. — 



ACCIDENCE, OR CHANGES IN WORDS. 105 

The instrument is placed where it belongs. — I know not 
where he has gone. — Before the cock crows, thou shalt 
deny me thrice. — When we go out, and when we come 
in, God sees us. — Though he slay me, yet will I trust 
in him. — As ye would that men should do unto you, 
do ye even so unto them. — They laid in wait that they 
might assault him by the way ; but the clouds covered 
the moon, and so they missed of their object. 

Model. — The hoys play^ &c. Briskly and sweetly 
are both adverbs of manner, since they express the maw- 
ner of the action ; and is a copulative coordinate con- 
junction, joining together sentences neither of which is 
dependent upon the other. 

§34. Interjections. 

Q. What are injections ? 

Interjections are mere organic sounds, expressive of 
emotion or feelings and without any grammatical rela- 
tions. They are as various as the different emotions of 
the soul, but the following are the most common : — 

Q. What are those of each class ? 

1. Expressing joy or exultation: hey ! hur- 
rah ! hu%za ! 

2. Sorrow, grief, compassion, pain: ah! 
woe ! alas ! alack ! oh ! O I 

3. Aversion, contempt: tush ! pish ! pshaw ! 
foh I fie ! pugh ! away ! avaunt ! 

4. Calling attention: ho! lo ! hehold ! hark! 
hallo ! hem ! hip ! 

5. Surprise: aha ! hah ! ah ! 



106 ETYMOLOGY. 

6. Desire of silence: hush ! hist ! mum ! 

7. Encouragement: hravo ! on ! courage ! 
well done ! 

8. Languor: heigh-ho ! 

9. Laughter: ha^ ha ! 

Q. What of certain words and phrases used as interjections ? 

Rem. 1. Some of these words, and many other words and 
phrases used as interjections, are properly verbs or nouns be- 
longing to sentences of which the other parts are not express- 
ed ; as, strange! (for, it is strange), adieu! (I commend you 
to God) , shame ! (it is a shame) , welcome ! (you are welcome) , 
&c. 

Q. What of the usage of several interjections ? 

Rem. 2. Besides expressing pain, O is used with nouns 
or pronouns in direct addresses; as, Othou! &c. So also 
the interjections desiring attention or silence, and some others, 
are used with adverbs or pronouns ; as, /o here ! lo there ! 
hark ye ! After ah ! alas ! and some others expressing grief, 
a pronoun in the objective case is often used ; as, ah me; so, 
also, me miserable ! (the interjection being understood). 



SECTION VI. 

FORMATION OF WORDS. 

§ 35. General Principles of Formation. 

Q. What are primitive and what derivative words ? 

1. Words which are not derived from some simpler 
form are called primitives^ or roots^ while those which 
are thus derived from others are called derivatives ; as, 
harm (primitive), harm-less (derivative). 



ACCIDENCE, OR CHANGES IN WORDS. 107 

Q. How are derivatives formed from primitives ? 
Rem. 1. Derivatives are formed from simple words by the 
addition of endings, or suffixes, as they are called. 

Q. What are compounds ? What prefixes ? 

2. Words formed by uriiting two separate words are 
called compound words^ or compounds. When the fii-st 
of the two words is a preposition, or an intensive or neg- 
ative particle, it is called a prefix ; as, light-house ; 'un- 
hind^ a-light, 

Q. To what languages do most prefixes and suffixes belong ? 

Rem. 2. As the English language is chiefly composed of 
Saxon, Latin, and Greek elements, its prefixes, as well as 
suffixes, belong mostly to one or the other of these languages. 
Of the prefixes, the greater number are Latin, while the suf- 
'fixes are chiefly Saxon. 

. Q. How may derivatives and compounds, respectively, be de- 
fined? 

3. Derived words, then, are formed by the addition of 
endings^ which have no distinct meaning ly themselves^ 
while compound words are formed of two words each of 
which has an independent meaning by itself 

Q. How are suffixes annexed, and the parts of compounds joined 
together ? 

Rem. 3. Both suffixes and prefixes are joined directly on 
to their word without a hyphen (-) between them, and so are 
the parts of other compound words, when by long and frequent 
usage the two ideas have become thoroughly blended into one. 

Q. What changes take place in joining prefixes to their words ? 

4. In joining prefixes to their words, the last letter of 
Ihe prefix is sometimes dropped (as in co for con and 



108 ETYMOLOGY. 

ant for anti^ when they come before a vowel, e. g. coor- 
dinate), or is changed to correspond with the first letter 
of the principal word. Thus d in ad before c,y, g, Z, n, 
j9, r, 5, ^, is changed into these letters respectively (be- 
coming ac, of, &;c.), and in like manner, also, the final 
consonant in the prefixes cotx, eo;, dis^ in^ oh^ sub^ and 
52/w, before different consonants, is changed to corre- 
spond ; but in^ con^ ew, and syn become, respectively, 
m, com, ew, and si/m before & or p. Hence we have, 
accord, arrest, correct (but, comply), effect, ^^noble 
(but, imprudent, imbibe), oj>pose, sw^gest, syllable (but, 
52/mpathy). 

Q. What changes take place in the final letter of the primitive 
in adding suffixes which begin with a vowel 1 

5. In joining suffixes which begin with a vowel to their 
words, the final syllable of the primitive suffers certain 
changes in particular cases : — 

1) If short and accented (sometimes, also, when not 
accented,^ especially when the final letter is Z), the last 
consonant is doubled before the ending ; as, beg-^ar, 
demur-ring, run-wing ; also (except by Webster), travel- 
Zer, travel-Zing, kidnap-ping, &c. ; but easing, driwAr-ing, 
&c. 

2) The final e of the primitive, not preceded by c or 
g (also le final before ly^ and t or te before ce or cy)^ is 
generally dropped; as, rov-er (from rove)^ nobl-y (no- 
ble), vagran-cy (vagrant) ; but peace-able^ change-able^ 
&;c. 

3) The final y of primitives (whether before a vowel 
or consonant) when not itself preceded by a vowel, and 
when i would not be doubled, is generally changed into 



ACCIDENCE, OR CHANGES IN WORDS. 109 

t (sometimes into e), but in a few cases is dropped before 
a vowel. Hence we have, plenti-ful (plenty), happi- 
ness, happi-est (happy), pite-ous (pity), &c. ; but, boy- 
ish, da^-s, marrz/-ing ; facilit-ate (facility). 

Q. What before endings beginning with a consonant, and in 
other cases ? 

Rem. 4. Also before endings beginning with a consonant, 
the last I of II is generally dropped; as, skilful (skill). The 
same is true of the final I of // in many words which take a 
prefix; as, until (till). Besides, there is often a change of 
the vowel of the primitive (and sometimes a rejection or 
change of final consonants), in forming derived words; as, 
mirth (from merry), seed (from sow). See ^36.11. 1. 2), 3). 

Q. What relation exists between the parts of compound words ? 

6. In compound words (where the first word is not a 
mere prefix), the second word becomes subordinate to 
the first, and is qualified or particularized by it, and con- 
sequently loses its separate accent ; as, dpple-tvee (not 
apple-tree), Newport, bldckhird. But where the combi- 
nation is loose the words are joined by a hyphen (-), and 
tlie second word has a slight accent of its own ; as, sea- 
water, house-dog, &c. 

Exercise XXI. 

Point out the derived and compound words in this list, and give 
the rules for the changes information. 

Log-house, rejoin, Z>estride, eel-pot, e/irich, mouse- 
trap, astir, henedith, approach, immortaHze, arouse, Hght- 
house, forgive, infatuate, foreknow, travelZer, misuse, 
Jeyond, imply, undo, withstsind, pole-cat, fire-frame. 



110 ETYMOLOGY. 

quietw^e, acZjoin, circumnavigate, beauti/wZ, contemporary, 
meeting-house, justice, noti/z/, level/in^, swrround, in- 
acti?;6, magni/y, tolerate^ mole-hill, noticeaZ>Ze, prelacz/, 
noveUz/, fortnight, daylight, cZilate, oppress, 52/mpathy, 
diameter, dough-faced, coZlect. 

Model. — Log-house. It is a compound word, be- 
cause it consists of two independent words combined into 
one. 

§ 36. Formation of Words by Suffixes (Deri- 
vation). 

I. Derived Verbs. 

Q. "What are the endings of the first class of derived verbs, their 
meanings and examples ? 

1. The principal verbal suffixes (signifying the mak- 
ing or causing that expressed by the primitive) are, 
en (w), er, Ze, ate (Latin), fy^ ize or ise (the two last 
Greek endings), and se ; as, white/z, slack c?z ; hinder, 
lower; sparkZe; alienage, frustrate ; dei/?/, memorialise, 
criticise ; cleanse, &c. 

Q, How are those of the second class derived ? 

2. Many verbs are derived from nouns by a change 
(either real or in sound) of the final spirant into its cor- 
responding vocal (§ 4. 7) ; as, prize (from price) ^ use 
(pronounced wse, from wse), prophesy (from prophecy)^ 
advise (advice), graze (grass), clothe (cloth), &c. 

Q. How are those of the third derived ? 

3. Many intransitive verbs are derived from transitive 
verbs by a vowel-change ; as, rise (from raise), lie 
(lay), fall (fell), sit (set), &c. 



ACCIDENCE, OK CHANGES IN WORDS. 



Ill 



Q. How are those of the fourth derived ? 

4. About sixty verbs are derived from nouns (or ad- 
jectives) by a mere change of accent to the last syllable ; 
as, — 



Nouns. 


Verbs. 


Nouns. 


Verbs. 


Absent 


Absent 


Desert 


Desert 


Abstract 


Abstract 


Insult 


Insult 


Accent 


Accent 


Premise 


Premise 


Compact 


Compact 


Project 


Project 


Concert 


Concert 


Subject 


Subject, &c. 



Rem. 1. Most verbs, in English, are" the same in form as 
the corresponding nouns ; as, love, to love ; judge, to judge, 
&e. 

II. Derived Substantives. 

1. Nouns are derived by adding the following endings 
of Anglo-Saxon origin : — 

Q. What is the first class of Saxon endings by which nouns are 
derived, their meaning and examples ? 

1) Those denoting agents or the doers of something: 
ar (rare), er {ess^ feminine, which is Hebrew), ster 
(stress^ feminine), ard (often implying contempt) ; as, 
begg-ar, harp-er, fish-er, tig-er, tigr-e55, songster^ song- 
stress^ pun-5^er ; drunk-arcZ, dot-ard^ &c. 

Q. What the second ? 

2) Those which express abstract ideas, qualities., or 
states: ness., ^/i, ing (an abstract action)., hood., head, 
ship, ric, dom, and y (or ery, which sometimes expresses 
the place where something is kept or done) ; as, good- 
ness, righteous-ness ; hu-th (from bear), dep-^A (deep) ; 



112 ETYMOLOGY. 

farth-tw^, cleans-tw^ ; child-hood^ God-head^ wor-ship 
(i. e. worth-ship), bishop-Wc, wis-cZom, brav-er-z/, fool- 
er-?/, rook-er-2/, nurs-er-?/, &c. 

Q. What the third ? 

3) Those which express the effect or result of the ac- 
tion impUed in their primitives : t^ d ; as, gif-t (from 
give)^ fligh-t (flee), draugh-t (draw) ; Jloo-d (flow), 
see-d (sow), &c. 

Q. What the fourth ? 

4) Those which express a diminution of the idea of 
their primitives : ling^ let^ kin^ erel^ ock^ and y in hah-y ; 
as, gos-ling^ ham-Ze^, lamb-Ariw, cock-ereZ, hill-ocA:, &c. 

q. What the fifth ? 

5) A few of a miscellaneous character : ew, Ze or eZ, 
oz(? ; as, maid-ew, gird-Ze, kern-eZ, mead-oz^, wid-ow, 

2. By adding the following endings from foreign lan- 
guages, mostly from the Latin and Greek : — 

Q. What is the first class of Greek and Latin endings by which 
nouns are derived, their meaning and examples ? 

1) Those which denote agents: or (er occasionally), 
(feminine ix^ ine^ ess Hebrew), ^c, ite^ ist^ ent^ ary ; 
as, governor, governe^^, adulterer, adulteress, testator, 
testatrto;, (hero) heroine^ crittc, favorite, economist, 
presidewi^, delinquent, adverser?/, &;c. 

Q. What the second, &c. 1 

2) Those which denote abstract ideas^ actions, states : 
ment^ age, ty, ity, alility or ihility, ance, ence, ancy, 
ency, ude, ion, {tude, tion, sion,) ure, al, ism, ate ; as, 



ACCIDENCE, OR CHANGES IN WORDS. 113 

managem^wif, usage, pie/?/, alrocity, sensibility, duraWZ- 
ity, perseverance, revere/ice, constancy, agency, quietw(ie, 
acU'ow, presswre, refusaZ, dogmatism, consula/e, &;c. 

Q. What of a few words of this class, and some other words 1 
Rem. 2. A few words of this class express rather the re- 
sult of the action than the state ; as, oration, creatwre, fixtwre, 
&c. Words ending in d or nd also express the result ; as, 
dividgnc?, reverend, &c. 

Q. What the third class, &c. ? 

3) There are a few other endings of a miscellaneous 
character which are used in a few words : oid (which 
means like), cle, ics (of sciences), y (arts and sciences), 
ory and ary, arium (denoting the place where a thing 
is kept) ; as, sipheroid, corpuscZe (a httle body), op- 
tics, history/, astronom?/, armori/, diwiary, herbarium, 
&;c. 

Q. What are endings in foreign words ? 

Rem. 3. The endings of words derived from foreign lan- 
guages are either such as belong to them as derived words in 
the languages from which they are taken ; as, testator (or 
slightly changed, as in action) ; or such as are added (or formed 
by a modification) in Anglicizing the word ; as, accelerate, as- 
tronomy, &c. 

III. Derived Adjectives. 

Q. By what endings is the first class of derived adjectives 
formed, and what are examples ? 

1. Adjectives are derived by the following endings of 

Anglo-Saxon origin : en (made of),ful, y (full of), ern, 

ish (belonging to, pertaining to, often diminutive), ed 

(furnished with), ly or like (similar to), less (without) ; 

8 



114 ETYMOLOGY. 

as, woode/z, play/wZ, wood?/, Western, childish^ English, 
whittsA, hornecZ, old-fashionec^, deadZi/, deathZzAre, child- 
less^ &c. 

Q. By what endings the second, and what examples ? 

2. Adjectives are derived by the following endings of 
Latin and Greek origin : ant^ ent (implying hahit or do- 
ings and often used as nouns) ; ahle^ ible {capability or 
fitness to be done) ; ose^ ous (abounding in) ; ine (de- 
noting different kinds of animals), ate (a certain state or 
form)^ al (belonging to) ; tive^ sive, ac^ ic {tendency ^ fit- 
ness^ or likeness) ; also, ory^ ary^ ile^ ine^ ar^ lar^ an^ 
and some others but little used ; as, tolerant, dependent ; 
favoraZ>Ze, toleraZ^Ze, responsi^Ze ; verbose, piteows; canine 
(dog kind), feline (cat), affectionate, ova^e, mechanicaZ, 
adverbiaZ ; restiz^e, delusii^e, elegiac, cathartic, emblem- 
atic; advisor!/, arbitrarz/, pueri'Ze, serpentine, consular, 
jocuZar, predestinarian, &c. 

Q. What are the endings of adjectives derived from proper 
names ? 

3. Adjectives derived from proper names, whether of 
countries, nations, or individuals, end as follows : ish^ 
ic^ ch^ an^ ian^ ean^ ese, er, ard^ &c., most of them 
being used both as nouns and adjectives ; as, English, 
SpanisA, Galk'c, Icelandic, FrencA, Dutc/i, German, Ital- 
ian, Demosthenian, Porsom'an, European, Epicurean, 
Portuguese, Icelander, Spaniar^Z, &;c. 

Q. How are ahverbs derived ? 

Rem. 4. The derivation of adverbs is so limited, and the 
process so simple, as not to require to be treated of separately. 
Adverbs of manner are derived from adjectives by adding ly 



ACCIDENCE, OR CHANGES IN WORDS. 115 

(as good^ good'ly). The correlative adverbs, also, are derived 
from the pronouns, for v^^hich see ^ 18, Rem. 6. 



Exercise XXII. 

Point out and classify, as above, the suffixes in these words, 

1. Systematize, sublimate, beautiful, rarefy, sluggard, 
rider, agitate, theft, blacken, ointment, manly, woman- 
ish, prudence, knavery, aggressive, rustic, rural, revel, 
whittling, juvenile, visionary, pliable, wisdom, friendship, 
Ciceronian, earthen, quality, mediocrity, memorialize, 
problematic, grandiose, audible, Sclavonic, popular, fix- 
edness, arbitrator, mendicant, patient, Roscicrucian, 
Eastern, bullock, duckling, rivulet, avarice, elegance. 

Model. — Systematize, It is a verb with a Greek 
ending, denoting to make or cause that expressed by the 
primitive (system). 

Annex all the appropriate endings you can think of to these 
words, 

2. Fool, quick, sleep, favor, brave, alien, God, press, 
churl, fit, fortune, just, quiet, lake, maid. South, light, 
girl, good, constant, aggrandize, sense, Afric. 

Model. — Fool : fool-isA, fool-eri/, iool-ing. 

§ 37. Formation of Words by Composition. 

I. Composition by prefixing Particles (by Prefixes). 

Q. What are the Anglo-Saxon prefixes, and their meanings'? 

1. Compound vi^ords are formed by prefixing the fol- 
lowing particles of Anglo- Sa^on origin : — 



116 ETYriOLOGY. 

Prefix. Meaning. Examples. 

A 0/z, down (often inten- Aboard, alight, a- ' 

sive) wake. 

Be Near, on (often mere- Reside, bedeck, Z»efit. 

ly intensive or cau- 
sative) 

For Against {opposition ., Forget, /orbid, for- ^ 

privation) give. 3 

Fore Before Jbretell, /breknow. 3 

Mis Wrongs defect ikZtsapply, mistrust. 

Over Ahove^ more Oz^erdo, overrxxn. 

Out Beyond., more OwMo, oi^^run. 

Un Not., privation U'7zwise,w?zdo,W7ibind. 3 

Under Beneath.^ inferior UncZerstand, under* 3 

ling. JL 

Up Upu)ards^ subversion Z^lift, wjt?set. bI 

With Against^ from PFi^/istand, ?^^^/ihold. 

ii 

Rem. 1. Some of these are independent words in English, t 

used separately after other words as a sort of suffix, in the ,. 

same sense as before them ; as, wjt;ho]d, hold up, &c. ; and Z 
some of them are inseparable particles, never found except 

as prefixes to other words. Only their principal significations ^ 

are given above, but sufficient to guide to their varying shades 'O 

of meaning in different words. SI 






Q. What are the Latin prefixes, and their meanings ? 
2. Compound words are formed by prefixing to differ- 
ent words the following particles of Latin origin : — 

Prefix. Meaning. Examples. 

A (ab, abs) From., away .4 vert, abstruse. 

Ad To -4cZjourn, approach. j3 



1^ 



ACCIDENCE, OE CHANGES IN WORDS. 



117 



Prefix, 


Meaning, 


. Examples, 


Amb (am) 


Around 


J.mputate. 


Ante 


Before 


^w^epast. 


Bene 


Good,, well 


j^ewevolent. 


Bis (bi) 


Twice,, in two 


^ivalved, bisect. 


Circum 


Around,, about 


Circum^ect 


Cis 


On this side 


Cisatlantic. 


Con 


Together 


CoTznect, coZlect. 


Contra 


Against 


Contrahdind, 


De 


Down,, from 


Dethrone, ^Zetract. 


Dis (di) 

i 


Asunder {^^o priv- 
ative) 


Distract, (distrust. 


'E (ex) 


Out of from 


Eject, eo^punge. 


En (French) 


Increase,, causation 


Enrich, enhance. 


Extra 


Beyond 


£a?^ravagant. 


In 

1 


Into,, in {not,, in ad- 
jectives) 


Inform, inactive. 


Inter 


Between,, amongst 


Interrupt. 


Intro 


Within,, in 


Introduce. 


j Magni 


Great 


Magnify. 


'MuW 


Many 


Multiply. 


Non 


Not,, no 


iVonintercourse. 


iOb 


Against,, about 


OZ>struct, oZ>Ugation. 


IPer 


Through^ Thorough 


Perform, perfect 


Post 


After 


Postpone. 


jPre 


Before {very with 
adjectives) 


Precede. 


Pro 


For, forth 


Propitiate, progress 


jPreter 


Beyond 


Preternatural. 


b^ 


Again, back 


Eecall, revive. 


1 Retro 


Backwards 


jReirograde. 



118 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Prefix. 


Meaning, 


Examples, 


Se 


Apart^ without 


Seclude. 


Sine 


Without 


SinecMxe, 


Sub 


Under., from under 


iSwJscribe, swZ>tract. 


Subter 


Beneath 


Suhteriwge, 


Super 


Ahove^ beyond 


Superscribe. 


Trans 


Over^ change 


Transfer^ iJraTzsplant. 


Uni 


One 


Uniform. 



Rem. 2. For the change in the final letters of ad, con, dis, 
ex, in, oh, and suh, in composition, see § 35. 4. 

Q. What are the Greek prefixes, and their meanings ? 

3. Compounds are formed by prefixing the following ; 
particles of Geeek origin : — 



Prefix. 


Meaning. 


Examples, 


A (an) 


Without [privation) 


j4wonymous. 


Amphi 


On loth sides., douhle 


^mp^Uheatre. 


Ana 


Up through 


Anaiomj' 


Anti 


Against 


J.w^tpathy 


Apo (ap) 


From 


Apogee., aphelion. 


Dia 


Through 


Dialogue. 


Epi 


Upon 


Epithet. 


Hyper 


Over^ too 


iJi/percritical. 


Hypo 


Under 


jEZi/pothesis. 


Meta 


Change^ heyond 


ilfe^athesis. 


Para 


Against^ contrary to 


Paradox. 


Peri 


Around -^ 


Periphrasis. 


Syn (sym) 


With., together 


jSr/mphony. 



ACCIDENCE, OR CHANGES IN WORDS. 119 

I. Composition by Union of the Principal Parts of 
Speech. 

Q. How is the first class of compounds formed, and what are 
jxamples "? 

1. By joining one noun to another; as, day-star, 
horse-man, morning-light, light-house, fire-wood, collar- 
bone, torch-light, harvest-time, ground-nut, oak-tree, lee- 
hive, man-eater, kid-napper, &c. 

Q. How the second class, and what examples ? 

2. By joining together a noun and an adjective (or par- 
iticiple), of which, in some combinations, the noun stands 
'first, and in others, last; as. New-man, New-town, free- 
man, free-thinker, quick-silver, turning -lathe, sawing- 

, ndll ; hlood-red, nut-hrown, ice-cold, fruit-hearing, heav- 
en-horn, hed-ridden, hlood-stained, chicken-hearted, &c. 

I Q. How the third, and what examples 1 

I 3. By uniting a verh and a noun, of which the verb 
usually stands first ; as, turn-spit, spit-fire, turn-coat, 
dare-devil, whet-stone, sing-song, God-send, &c. 

Q. How the fourth, and what examples ? 

4 By joining adjective to adjective (or participle) ; 
as, all-mighty, two-fold, much-loved, cold-hearted, fiaxen- 
haired, hot-headed, new-horn, free-spoken, dear-hought, 
new-made, all-seeing, soft-flowing, &c. 

Q. What other compounds ? 

Rem 3 There are also a few compounds formed by pla- 
cing a verb before an adjective; as, stand-still, live-long; or 
before another verb; as, hear-say; and perhaps a few other 
combinations, but little used. 



120 



ETYBIOLOGY. 



Exercise XXIII. 



Point out and classify, as above, the component parts of these 
words, 

1. Aboard, absorb, ingulf, seahorse, belie, with 
draw, circumpolar, ground-nut, beneficent, misspell, mid- 
summer, foresee, Cisalpine, contravene, molehill, com- 
pose, conflict, graystone, unreal, overload, mountain- 
high, undergo, uprise, milkweed, denude, inform, snow- 
white, interlock, nonresistance, greensward, perimeter, 
metamorphose, fast-sailing, hyperborean, supersede, out- 
of-fashioned, maple-tree, apophthegm, aphorism, object, 
abjure, multifarious, animal, distrust, post-office, pre- 
tence, soft-flo\ving, transparent, provoke, antagonist, 
arrive, shoulder riiade, intermit, wildfire. 

Model. — Aboard^ heneficeiit. The first is composed 
of the Anglo-Saxon prefix a (on) and board ; the second 
of the Latin prefix hene (well) and the Anglicized Latin 
root Jlcent. 

Join all the prefixes and suffixes to these words and roots of 
which they ivill admit. 

2. Hold, form, fold, move, elude, ply, brace, claim, 
state, scribe, duct, trust, fix, place, do, pel, fer, stand, 
rich, rect, see, figure, tend, mend, value, mix. 

Model. — Hold^ elude. Holder, Z>ehold, beholder, 
26'i7/ihold, wjohold, ^^pholder; also, hold ow, hold iw, hold 
out., hold up. Clude : conclude, cowclusiow, conclusive, 
conchi^ively.) 6a:clude, exclusion^ exQ\us>we^ exoXw^ively^ 
iwclude, iwclusire, inclusively, in^erclude, preclude, pre- 
clusiow, seclude, seclusion. 



PART II. 

SYNTAX. 



INTRODUCTION. 

§ 38. Parts of a Sentence and Different Kinds 
OF Sentences. 

Q. What are the principal words in a sentence ? 
• 1. In a sentence, or the expression of a thought, the 
noun or pronoun of which something is said (i. e. the 
subject)^ and the verb, or verb to be with an adjective 
or noun (i. e. the predicate)^ are the principal words^ 
and are to be considered the nucleus or centre to which 
the other words are attached. 

Q. What must the subject be ? 

2. The subject must be a substantive idea, as a noun 
or pronoun, or an adjective, infinitive, sentence, or any- 
single word taken by itself and used substantively ; as 
the hoy runs ; I love ; the good are happy ; to err is hu- 
man ; that Cato should have said this is incredible ; red 
is a flaring color ; once is enough ; ah ! is an interjection. 



122 SYNTAX. 

Q. What must the predicate be ? 

3. The predicate must be either an independent verb, 
or the verb to he with an adjective, participle, or noun ; 
as, the child sleeps ; the boy strikes his hoop ; the iron 
is hot ; the man is a carpenter, 

Q. What is a copula 7 

Rem. 1. The verb to he, since it serves to unite an adjec- 
tive or noun in the predicate to the subject of the sentence to 
which it refers, is called the copula (bond) . The verbs named 
in ^39. 4, are of the nature of copulas. 

Q. What is said of the omission of the subject or predicate ? 

4. The subject and the predicate are each occasion- 
ally omitted, especially in poetry and dialogue,. when 
they may be readily supplied by the reader ; as, " lives 
there, who loves his pain" (i. e. lives there a" maw); 
"to whom the monarch" (i. e. replied), 

Q. What are the hmitations of the subject and predicate ? 

5. The other words in a sentence, except the subject 
(i. e. the noun or pronoun in the nominative case) and 
predicate, may be considered as the limitations of the 
subject and predicate, since they all serve merely to cZe- 
fine or qualify^ in various ways, these principal parts of 
a sentence. 

Q. What are the two kinds of limitations called? 

6. The limitations of the noun (both as subject and 
object) are called Attrihuiives, and the limitations of the 
predicate are called Objects. 

Q. When is the noun an object, and when independent ? 
Rem. 2, When the noun serves as a limitation of the pred- 



INTRODUCTION. 123 

icate, it is said to be in the objective case. And when it is 
neither subject nor object, but is used in addressing something 
direct}^, it is said to be in the nominative case independent; as, 
child, be still. 

Q. What is expressed by the different parts of speech ? 

7. By the use of the different parts of speech, thought 
may be expressed in the following forms, called Sen- 
tences : — 

Q. What is the first kind of sentence ? 

1) The unmodified Simple Sentence^ consisting of a 
simple subject and a simple predicate ; as, man loves ; 
time is short ; God is love 

Q. What the second ? 

2) The simple sentence having its subject modified ; 
as, the man loves ; that man loves ; the term of life is 
short ; God, our judge ^ is love. 

Q. What the third ? 

3) The simple sentence with its predicate modified; 
as, man loves money ; God loves us ; man loves to rule ; 
time is short to man, 

Q. What effect do limitations have upon the subject or predi- 
cate? 

Rem. 3. It will be seen in all these cases of modification 
or limitation, that the subject or predicate is made more defi- 
nite or specific; as, *'man" (what man?) the man, the good 
man, &c., loves ; *' man loves " (loves what?) money, loves to 
rule, &c. 

Q. What are logical, and what grammatical subjects and predi- 
cates ? What analysis, and what parsing ? 

Rem. 4. In sense, or logically, all the words in a sentence, 



124 SYNTAX. 

however complicated, belong either to the subject or the predi- 
cate, and hence modified subjects and predicates are called log- 
ical subjects and 'predicates, to distinguish them from those that 
are not modified, which are called grammatical. By a further 
process of generalization, all modifications of the subject and 
predicate may be resolved into attributes or objects, expressing 
diiFerent relations to the subject or predicate, instead of each 
being considered in its strictly grammatical significance, as a 
distinct part of speech. The distribution or grouping together 
of the diflferent parts of a sentence logically is called Analysis, 
while treating them grammatically is called Parsing, Both 
processes should go together. 

Q. What the fourth 1 

4) The Coordinate Compound Sentence,^ consisting of 
two (or more) simple sentences, neither of which is made 
dependent upon the other, connected by conjunctions ; 
as, God is love, and reigns above ; life is short, hut art is 
long ; I know the man, for he is my neighbour ; life is 
short, therefore let us improve it. 

Q. What the fifth? 

5) The Subordinate Compound Sentence,^ consisting 
of two (or more) simple sentences, connected by a con- 
junction, or relative words, one of which is made depend- 
ent upon or subordinate to the other, and appears as it 
were but a part of it ; as, I know that my Redeemer 
liveth ; this is the man who fired the building ; I came 
where he was ; he delivered up the money when he ar- 
rived ; if you ask money of me, I will give it ; he be- 
haved as well as he could ; time is shorter than eternity. 

Q. What contractions do coordinate sentences undergo 1 
Rem. 5. In compound coordinate sentences (rarely in sub- 



INTRODUCTION. 125 

ordinate), a subject (or object) or predicate (or both) common 
to both sentences (or clauses) is generally omitted in one ; as, 
he is poor, but virtuous (for, he is poor, but he is virtuous) ; 
he both injures and abuses him (for, he both injures him and 
he abuses him) ; money brings favor, but not wisdom (for, 
money brings favor, but money does not bring wisdom). 

Q. Of what parts does Syntax consist ? 

8. As sentences are of two general kinds, simple and 
compound^ Syntax properly consists of two parts, the 
syntax of simple sentences^ and the syntax of compound 
sentences. 



126 SYNTAX. 

CHAPTER I. 
SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

SECTION I. 

general treatment of the simple sentence. 

§ 39. Agreement of the Parts of a Sentence, 

Q. What inflections have verbs and nouns ? 

1. As the verb, in each of its modes and tenses, and 
in both voices, has separate forms for the singular and 
plural, as well as for the different persons, while both 
nouns and pronouns vary their form to express the plu- 
ral, and pronouns to express person also, we have the 
following rule for the agreement of the subject and 
predicate : — 

q. What is Rule I. ? 

Rule I. A noun or pronoun, used as subject, is 
nominative case to its verb, and they agree each with 
the other in number and person ; as, the fox leaps ; the 
foxes leap ; thou sleepest ; they sleep. 

Q. What is said of the inflection of adjectives and pronouns ? 

2. The English adjective admits of no change in form 
to express either gender or number, while, of adjective 
pronouns, only those of the third person express gender^ 
and this, as is also the case with that expressed by per- 
sonal pronouns of the third person, is not the gender of 
the noun with which it agrees, but of that to which it 
refers. An adjective, then, cannot properly be said to 



SIMPLE SENTENCES. 127 

agree with a noun, but only to belong to it. We have 
then the following rules for the adjective and adjective 
pronoun : — 

Q. What are the two rules of agreement relating to them ? 

Rule IL An adjective or adjective pronoun belongs 
to the noun which it qualifies ; as, the good man ; the 
good house ; his coat ; her cloak ; its value. 

Rule III. The possessive and personal pronouns of 
the third person agree with the noun to which they re- 
fer, in gender and number; as, he (a man) took his 
cane ; the sparrow hath deserted her nest ; each man has 
his faults. 

Q. What is said of the number and person of pronouns in a 
certain case ? 

^ Rem. 1. When a personal pronoun in the subsequent part 
of a sentence refers to two or more pronouns in the former part, 
of different persons, it is in the plural , and takes the first per- 
son, when one of the antecedent pronouns is of the first person, 
and the second, when one of them is of the second person, and 
neither of the first ; as, he and I shared it between us ; you 
and he shared it between yourselves. So, also, the relative 
pronoun takes the person and number of the noun or pronoun 
it refers to ; as, I am he who keeps watch. 

Rem. 2. Relatives, also, generally refer to some noun go- 
ing before, or implied ; but they have no inflection to express 
either gender or number, and hence may be said to refer to 
their antecedent, but not to agree with it. 

Q. Why is it used in certain cases before verbs ? 

Rem. 3. When an infinitive or whole sentence is nomina- 
tive to a verb, the subject is conceived of as neuter, and hence, 
when the subject follows its verb, the verb is generally pre- 



128 SYNTAX. 

ceded by the neuter pronoun it; as, it is easy to deceive a 
child (= to deceive a child is easy) ; it is hard that a poor man 
should (or, for a poor man to) have the necessaries of life 
highly taxed. 

Q. In what other cases is it used 1 

Rem. 4. It is used in all impersonal expressions, by which 
the person or thing becomes subordinate (see §30, Rem. 2), 
and hence is used in various phrases of this nature where the 
subject follows, and even when it is in the plural number; as, 
it is a dark night; it is they who have done the mischief 
(=they are the ones who, &c.) ; it is six weeks since he left. 

Q. When is there used before a verb, and what does is then be- 
come? 

Rem. 5. In like manner, also, the adverb there often pre- 
cedes a verb, when its subject follows it; as, there followed 
him great multitudes; there is no such thing as absolute 
knowledge. In this case is becomes a substantive verb exr 
pressing existence, and is not, as in other cases, a mere copula. 

Q. What is said of collective nouns, and what the rule for their 
agreement ? 

3. As a collective noun, or noun of multitude, embra- 
ces a number of individuals, which may be conceived of 
either separately or as a body, we have the following 
rule for its agreement with its verb : — 

Rule IV. A collective noun may be followed by 
either a singular or a plural verb, according as the action 
expressed by the verb seems to require the united or 
individual action of those embraced in the collective 
term ; as, the council has determined otherwise (a united 
action) ; the council differed in their opinions (they 
could not differ as a unit). 



SIMPLE SENTENCES. 129 

Rem. 6. Such words as half, part, majority, number, &c., 
are properly collectives, and often take a plural verb ; as, half 
of the apples are rotten ; "the one part were Sadducees." 

Q. What is Rule V. ? 

Rule V. When the same predicate refers to two or 
more subjects relating to different persons or things (gen- 
erally connected by a7id expressed or understood), the 
verb is in the plural ; as, time and tide wait for no man ; 
I and you are friends ; wealth, honor, virtue, were his ; 
but, on the contrary, we say, Washington, the father of 
his country, is no more. 

Q. When do two subjects have a singular verb 1 
Rem. 7. But after each and every, or when the different 
subjects have nearly the same meaning and are conceived as 
forming but a single complex idea, the verb is often in the 
singular ; as, every officer and soldier claims (or claim) a su- 
periority over others ; where moth and i^ust doth corrupt. 

Q. What is Rule VI. ? 

Rule VI. When two or more subjects of the same 
number and person are connected by either^ or^ neither^ 
nor^ and also^ as well as^ the predicate refers to either 
indifferently, and is of the same number and person as 
the subject referred to ; but when they are of different 
numbers, also when of different persons (especially when 
the first person stands before the second, or the first or 
second before the third), it generally agrees with the sub- 
ject which stands next to it ; and when they are connect- 
ed by with or not^ and not^ it agrees with that which 
stands first ; as, John or James intends to go ; Cicero 
as well as Demosthenes icas eloquent ; John and also 
James intends to go ; I or thou art to blame ; one and 
9 



130 SYNTAX. 

sometimes two objects present themselves in vision ; John 
and not James intends to go. 

Q. What verbs express an incomjDlete predicate, and what is 
said of the nouns which follow them ? 

4. As the verb to he^ and certain other verbs which 
are not capable of forming a complete predicate of them- 
selves, such as verbs of iecoming^ groicing^ remaining^ 
appearing^ heing named^ called^ appointed^ chosen^ re- 
garded as somethings and the like, often take after them 
nouns (as well as adjectives) to complete the predicate, 
these nouns should always correspond in gender (as far 
as the language has separate forms for the masculine 
and feminine) to the subject. Hence, we have the fol- 
lowing rule in this case : — 

Q. What is Kule YII. 1 

Rule VII. A noun in the predicate agrees in gen^^ 
der and case^ but not always in numher^ with the subject 
of the sentence to which it refers ; as, the man was ap- 
pointed king (not queen) ; she became an instructress 
(not instructor) s &c. 

Q. What occurs when the term for the male and the female is 
the same ? 

Rem. 8. But where the term for the male and the female 
is the same, there is no chance of distinguishing them in the 
predicate ; as, he or she became an innkeeper. So, too, after "^ 
the impersonal it there may be either he, she, they, or him, her, 
them, according as it is nominative or objective ; as, it is he 
(or she) ; I know it to be him (see §47, Rem. 4). 

Q. Does the predicate noun affect the form of the verb ? 
Rem. 9. Where the noun in the predicate differs from the 
subject in number, it does not affect the form_ of the verb, which 



SIMPLE SENTENCES. 131 

always agrees with the subject, but the subject sometimes 
stands after the verb ; as, his meat was locusts ; the wages of 
sin is death (here death is the subject). 

Note. The pointing out of the different parts of speech in a 
sentence, together with an explanation of their forms, office, and 
agreement or government, is called Parsing. For the difference 
between analysis and parsing, see § 38, Kem. 4. 

Exercise XXIT. 

Correct these examples, and give the rules. 

* 1. Circumstances alters cases. — Potatoes is cheap. — 

'' Flour are dear. — Every man has their faults. — I and 
John and Peter took their hats and went. — You and I 
will hasten to your homes. — The clergy differs in doc- 
trine. — The majority of the men was English. — The 
boy and girl stays at home. — Cicero, the patriot and ora- 

• tor, are dead. — Csesar, as well as Cicero, were eloquent. 

; — Either you or he are in fault. — The teacher and the 

I pupils leaves the school. — Victoria is king of Eng- 
land. — Them is the jockies for me. — I am him who 

I study Greek. — I know it to be he. — Words is w^ind. 
Model. — Circumstances alters cases. It should be, 

! Circumstances alter cases, since, the noun being plural, 

i the verb should be so also. (Rule I.) 

Point out the subject and predicate in each of these sentences, 
and give the rules for their agreement. 

2. The fire burns, — The rose is red. — He is a bar- 

: rister. — The lark sings. — Time is short. — Time is 

money. — To err is human. — To forgive is divine. — 

The wolf became his nurse. — That Cato should have 

said this, is incredible. — Whether he will come is un- 



132 SYNTAX. 

certain. — There is nothing like trying. — The church 
voted a fast. — The choir were discordant. — It is not 
wise to trifle with health. — The man and his horse were 
drowned. — I and your brother were classmates. — He 
was chosen ambassador. — Science is the inventress of 
the arts. 

Model. — The fire hums. Fire is the subject, in the 
nominative case to hurns^ which is the predicate, and 
agrees with its subject in number and person, according 
to Rule I. 

Make one or more simple assertions about each of these objects, 
3. Wisdom, virtue, man, wood, music, house, to die 

for one's friends, I, he, she, love, life, praise, mountain, 

river, army, country, city. 

Model. — Wisdom, Wisdom invites ; wisdom is 

good, &c. 

§ 40. Different Forms of the Predicate. 

I. State Forms (Voices). 

Q. How may the predicate be expressedj and how is the subject 
represented in each case ? 

1. The predicate may be expressed either by the ac- 
tive or the passive forms of the verb. In the one case, 
the subject is represented as being in an active state, and 
in the other, as in a passive or recipient state ; as, I 
strike ; I am struck. 

Q. What are the two kinds of action expressed by active verbs, 
and what the distinction among active verbs in consequence '? 

2. The action ascribed to the subject by an active 
verb may either be such as ends in itself; as, " the child; 



SIMPLE SENTENCES. 133 

sleeps," in which case it is called an active intransitive^ 
or simply an intransitive verb ; or such as admits or re- 
quires the addition of some word (not governed by a 
preposition) denoting an object on which it terminates, 
when it is called a transitive verb ; as, the boy strikes 
his hoop, 

Q. What is said of many active verbs ? 

3. But many active verbs, in English, are both tran- 
sitive and intransitive, being constructed sometimes with 
an object after them, and sometimes without an object, 
especially such as express motion ; as, to turn a wheels 
or, to turn (as when one changes his course) ; to move 
a body^ or, to move (change place) ; to melt wax^ or, the 
snow melts ; to mourn the loss of a friend^ or simply, to 
mourn, &c. 

Q. What is said of many intransitive verbs ? 

4. Many intransitive verbs become transitive by tak- 
ing a preposition after them, which is regarded as a part 
of the verbal idea, and renders them capable of receiv- 
ing the passive form ; as, to run against (to run, in- 
transitive)^ rejoice at^ bark at^ spit upon^ shoot at^ and 
many others ; as, I shoot (intransitive), I shoot at a 
mark (transitive), I am shot at by one (passive). 

Q. What verbs may have a passive form ? 
Rem. 1. None but transitive verbs can take the passive 
form. We can say, I am struck, but not, I am slept. 

Q. How may a sentence be changed from the active to the pas- 
sive form 1 

5. A sentence, in most cases, may be expressed either 
actively or passively, without any material change of 



134 SYNTAX. 

sense. In this case the object of the active becomes the 
subject of the passive verb, while the subject of the ac- 
tive is placed after the passive and governed by the prep- 
osition hy ; as, I strike the horse (active) ; the horse is 
struck hy me. 

Q, How is reflexive action expressed in English ? 

6. The action of a subject upon itself is generally ex- 
pressed, in English, by an active verb followed by a re- 
flexive pronoun ; as, " I rub myself" ; or by a simple in- 
transitive verb; as, I wash^ move, turn, &c., where the 
action is really reflexive. 

II. Time Forms (Tenses). 

Q. In what three divisions of time may the action of the predi- 
cate be expressed ? 

1. The action of the predicate may be expressed as 
belonging either to the past, the present, or the future, 
and hence, by diflerent tense-forms of the verb, as de- 
scribed in § 23, which should be now reviewed. 

Q. How is .the present tense often used? 

2. The present tense is often used in narrating past 
events, when they are conceived so vividly as to seem, 
as it were, present ; as, for instance, when one says, in 
speaking of a past event, " he then plunges in, swims 
across, and seeks the king's tent." 

Q. What further usage is there of the present tense ? 

3. The present, also, is employed, in English, to ex- 
press permanent states, habits, general truths, &c. ; sis, 
the righteous are secure ; the husbandman makes hay 
while the sun shines ; God is love. 



SIMPLE SENTENCES. 135 

Q. How is the present of verbs of hearing^ &c. used, and how 
of the verbs to go and do 1 

Rem. 1. The present, especially of verbs of hearing, see- 
ing, perceiving, and the like, is often used in speaking of some- 
thing past which continues to the present; as, I hear he is no 
better (a general report, often heard, but not necessarily at the 
time of speaking). So, also, especially with the verbs go and 
do, the present has a future meaning, since it expresses as ac- 
complished what is only an energetic determination ; as when 
one expresses a sudden and resolute determination of doing 
something, by saying, I do it, 1 go, I am off. 

Q. What is the perfect often equivalent to, and why ? 

4. As the perfect represents an action as complete in 
the present, the present state of completion is often the 
principal idea, so that the perfect is frequently equivalent 
to the present, expressed by the verb to be and an adjec- 
tive or participle ; as, I have recovered, = I am well ; 
my friend has died, =: my friend is dead. 

Q. What is the pluperfect often equivalent to ? the fut. perfect? 

Rem. 2. In like manner, the pluperfect is often equal to 
the imperfect, and the future perfect to the future ; as, the 
child had died, =the child was dead ; the mail will have ar- 
rived by noon, = the mail will be here by noon. 

Q. How is the future often used ? 

5. The future is often used in directions, entreaties, 
exhortations, and dissuasives, as a softened imperative ; 
as, you will see that the money is paid as agreed ; will 
you desist ? you will accompany me, of course ; you 
will not desert me. 



136 SYNTAX. 

in. Mode Forms (Mood or Mode). 

Q. In what three ways may the predicate be expressed, and 
what is the mode for each 1 

1. The action or idea of the predicate may be ex- 
pressed as a fact^ or as a mere conception <, or as a com- 
mand. The forms expressing facts, or representing 
things as real, constitute the indicative mode, while those 
expressing conceptions constitute the subjunctive and po- 
tential modes, and those expressing commands, direc- 
tions, &c., the imperative ; as, the wind blows (indica- 
tive) ; if the wind blow (or, should the wind blow) it 
will block up the roads with snow (subjunctive or po- 
tential) ; depart thou (imperative). 

Q. What is said of the infinitive ? 

Rem. 1. The infinitive mode is merely a general substan- 
tive expression of the idea of the verb, and hence can never be 
used as a predicate. 

2. The subjunctive (or indicative after ijj^ though^ al- 
though^ &c.) and potential modes are used as follows in 
simple sentences, and the principal clauses of compound 
sentences : — 

Q. What do the present and perfect subjunctive 'express in 
independent sentences ? 

1) The present and perfect express a conception as 
possible^ in which case the present often refers to what 
is future ; as, though he slay me (whether now, or at 
any future time), yet will I trust in him ; if he comes, 
I will receive him ; the mail may arrive by noon ; the 
mail may have arrived already. 



SIMPLE SENTENCES. 137 

Q. What the imperfect and pluperfect 1 

2) The imperfect and pluperfect express a concep- 
tion as contrary to fact ^ or what really is, in which case 
the sentence is generally conditional, and the imperfect 
represents the action as eiiher present ov future ; as, had 

j he been here (or, if he had been here) the child would 
' not have died (but, it is implied, he was not here and 
; hence the child has died) ; should you assert that (wheth- 
er now, or at any future time), you would err. 

I Q. What are, in general, the ideas expressed by the subjunctive 
! forms ? 

3) The subjunctive and potential forms, together with 
let and the infinitive, express, in general, the following 
ideas : a supposition^ a modest opinion^ a questionable 
possihility ^ an encouragement^ exhortation^ loisli^ the 
present and perfect denoting mere suppositions, and the 
imperfect (generally) and pluperfect suppositions, &c., 
contrary to fact ; as, it may be so ; no one can doubt it, 
surely ; what could I have done ? would that he were 
here ! would that he had not (might not have) died I O 
that he may recover ! let us go hence ; we should favor 
the virtuous. 

Q. What is said of the subjunctive in subordinate clauses 1 
3. The subjunctive and potential moods, also, express 
the same uncertainty and unreality in subordinate as 
in principal clauses, and hence are used especially in 
clauses denoting an end or aim^ after that [that not)^ in 
order that^ and in hypothetical, concessiye, and alterna- 
tive sentences, after t/", though^ although^ and whether^ 
where the hypothesis is not assumed as real, but as barely 



138 SYNTAX. 

possible ; as, we eat that we may live ; all feared that 
the city would be taken ; laws are made that wicked 
men may be deterred from crime ; a good man, if it be 
necessary, does not hesitate to yield up his life ; if a good 
name is better (as it is) than riches, how absurd the 
course of most men ! 

Q. What is the present tendency of the language with regard to 
the subjunctive ? 

Rem. 2. Originally, the use of the subjunctive in hypotheti- 
cal sentences seems to have been governed by some such prin- 
ciple as that stated above, but of late the tendency seems to 
have been to use the indicative in nearly all cases where the 
potential is not required, whether the condition be assumed as 
real or only 'possible. See ^24, Rem. 1. Dr. Webster thinks, 
that, if used at all, it should be confined to future contingent 
events. 

Q. What is said of may^ can., &c. ? 

Rem. 3. Some of the forms which are used with the prin- 
cipal verb in making up the potential mode, are not always 
merely potential auxiliaries, but often express permission, 
power, duty, &c., as a reality. This is particularly the case 
with would; as, I would God (=1 wish God). 

Exercise XXV. 

Parse the predicates of the first set of examples, applying the 
above principles, and construct sentences, having their predi- 
cates in different voices, tenses, and modes, to the second set. 
1. The top spins. — The horse leaped the fence. — 
The hght shall be extinguished. — If you ask money I | 
will give it. — A rich man may be wretched. — The 
door has been opened. — The city is besieged. — The 
message was sent. — The mail will have arrived before 



I SIMPLE SENTENCES. 139 

I Jrou reach the office. — If death be near, my condition is 
truly wretched. 

Model. — The top spins. Spins is an active verb, 
because the subject appears as active ; and intransitive, 
because the action is confined to itself. It agrees with 
top^ according to Rule I. 

2. Tree, desk, book, school-room, table, stove, map, 
vine, time, snow, wax, light. 

Model. — Tree, The tree grows, is green, has been 
broken, &c. 



SECTION II. 

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE WITH ITS SUBJECT MODIFIED. 

§ 41, Classification of Attributives. 

Q. What is an attributive ? 

1. An attributive is any qualifying word, or combina- 
tion of words, joined directly to a noun in order to dejlne 
it more exactly^ and expressing with it a comhined idea. 
An attributive, then, may be : — 

Q. What are the different classes of attributives 1 

1) The article a {mi) and the; as, a man, the man. 

2) The adjective, adjective pronoun, and participle ; 
as, a good man, that man, the dying man. 

3) The noun in the possessive case, or governed by 
the preposition of; as, the king'^s house, the house of the 
king. 

4) A noun in apposition ; as, Herod, the king. 



140 SYNTAX. 

Q. Can an attributive qualify an object? 
Rem. An attributive may qualify a noun used as an object, 
as well as a subject. 

Q. What kind of nouns are omitted, leaving the attributive 
alone 1 

2. The noun to which the attributive refers is often 
omitted, so that the attributive stands alone. The nouns 
thus omitted are such as house^ palace^ churchy sJiop^ inn^ 
&c., and are naturally suggested by the connection ; as, 
I am going to St, PauVs (i. e. church) ; at Johnson the 
'bookseller's^ or (when the explanatory term is complex, 
consisting of several words), at Johnson'' s^ a respectable 
bookseller on the Strand (i. e. at the shop of Johnson, 
&c.). But where the explanatory or appositional phrase 
is so long that it cannot with propriety receive the pos- 
sessive sign, it should generally be avoided, by express- 
ing all the words ; as, at the shop of Johnson, a respect- 
able bookseller, &c. 

Q. What attributive adjectives are used as nouns ? 

3. Many attributive adjectives are used as nouns ; as, 
the good, the wise^ the right, the left, mortals, malignant, 
&c. ; also those expressing abstract ideas ; as, the heaU' 
tiful, the good, the true, &c. 

Exercise XXVI. 

Point out the attributives in these sentences, 
A white house. — Running water. — The boy^s father. 
— A man of experience. — This book. — My horse. — 
William the Conqueror. — They dined at the Turk's 
Head. — Mortals, awake ! 



SIMPLE SENTENCES. 141 

Model. — A white house. White is an attributive, 
because it limits or defines the noun house without the 
use of a verb. 



§ 42. Modification by Attributives. 

Q. How does a or an modify a noun ? 

1- The article a (used before a consonant, often be- 
fore w, also h when distinctly sounded) or an, though 
properly denominated indefinite^ in comparison with the^ 
generally makes the word before which it stands more 
definite than when it stands alone, since it singles out 
some one of a whole class, without, however, deciding 
what one ; as, man (i. e. mankind), a man (some one 
man). 

Q. How does the modify a noun ? 

2. The definite article the often means nearly the 
same as this or that^ and always singles out an object as 
well known, or viewed in some definite relation ; as, the 
tree, the man (i. e. the one just mentioned or now in 
view), &c. 

Q. How do adjective pronouns modify a noun ? 

3. Adjective pronouns define a noun more closely, by 
limiting its meaning to the speaker, the person addressed, 
or the person or thing spoken of, or by describing it as 
the nearer or more remote of two objects ; as, my hat, 
thy hat, his hat, that hat ; this is yours, that mine. 

Q. How do adjectives and participles modify a noun? 

4. Adjectives and participles define nouns simply by 
ascribing to them the qualities which they express ; as, 
good man, had man, loved one. 



142 SYNTAX. 

Q. What is said of one noun being placed before another ? 

Rem. 1. A noun is often placed before another noun to de- 
fine it. which makes a sort of compound word ; as, barn door, 
gold ring. (See ^ 37, II.) 

Q. How do two adjectives qualify a noun 1 

5. When two or more adjectives refer to the same 
noun, either they qualify it equally, or the last qualifies 
it directly and the other or others are subordinate to the 
last, forming with it a sort of compound adjective, which 
is particularly the case with numerals and pronouns ; as, 
the beautiful and the accomplished gentleman ; my old 
hat ; ten good men ; last Tuesday night. 

Q. How does the possessive case qualify a noun ? 

6. The possessive case used attributively (the attribu- 
tive possessive) is employed in defining things by indicat- 
ing their possessor or maker ; as, the king^s garden, or 
the garden of the king ; Solomoii's temple, == the tem- 
ple built by Solomon. The possessive case is said to be 
governed by the noun which it qualifies. 

Q. How does a noun with of modify another noun ? 

7. A noun (often having an adjective belonging to it) 
preceded by of is used in defining things by indicating 
their substance^ or quality^ or that of which they are a 
part ; as, a rod of iron ; a man of great talents ; the 
roof of a house. The noun is said to be governed by its 
preposition, of 

Q. What forms of expression are nearly equivalent ? 
Rem. 2. In many cases the possessive idea may be ex- 
pressed either by a noun with o/*, the possessive case, or the 



SIMPLE SENTENCES. 143 

I 

corresponding adjective ; as, the crown of the king = the 
j hinges crown = the ro^al crown. Indeed, a noun followed by 
I of and another noun is sometimes used as a compound adjec- 
tive ; as, matter-of-fact man. 

Q. What does the noun with of sometimes express ? 

8. Sometimes the noun with of expresses the object 
of some feeling or action expressed by a noun ; as, the 
perusal of hooks ; the love of God in the heart. The 
idea expressed by of in such cases is objective rather 
than possessive. 

Q. What other prepositions are used to connect nouns attribu- 
tively ? 

Rem. 3. Various other prepositions, also, are often used 
to connect nouns attributively with other nouns, as to, for, in, 
with; as, a friend to the cause; milk /or babes (= babe's milk) ; 
man in the moon ; a ship with sails, &c. ; in which case the 
noun with the preposition must always express some quality of 
the principal noun. 

Q. What is said of a double possessive idea ? 

Rem. 4. In such expressions as *' a picture of the king's," 
there is a double possessive idea expressed by of and the pos- 
sessive case. The meaning is, *' a picture of the king's pic- 
tures." So in the expression, *^ minister near the court of 
St. James's," palace is understood. See §41. 2. 

Q. How does a word in apposition define a noun 1 

9. A noun (often having an adjective belonging to it) 
is frequently put in the same case with another noun, 
called apposition^ in order to define it more closely by 
an equivalent expression ; as, Alexander the Great ; 
Joseph the carpenter ; George, an honest laborer. But 



144 SYNTAX. 

a noun in apposition with a possessive case is not in the, 
possessive, but the objective ; as, at Smith's, the well- 
known bookseller. 

Rem. 5. The noun in apposition is sometimes connected 
with the noun defined by «5, to indicate in what respect the as- 
sertion about the principal noun is to be taken ; as, Washing- 
ton, as a general, surpassed all the men of his time. 

Q. What is the partitive apposition ? 

Rem. 6. A pronoun denoting a part of any thing often 
stands in apposition with a noun or pronoun denoting the 
whole, in which case the predicate properly agrees with the 
whole, and not the part ; as, they go, each to his own home ; 
they fought, some with clubs and some with fists. But when 
a pronoun follows the partitive, it agrees with it, and not the 
whole ; as, the men defended themselves, each as he was able. 

Q. What is a noun sometimes in apposition with ? 

Rem. 7. Sometimes a noun stands in apposition with a 
whole sentence, rather than any particular word ; as, "the 
weather forbids walking, a 'prohibition hurtful to both." 

Q. What is said of names of places, rivers, «&c. ? 

Rem. 8. With the general terms town, city, county, isl- 
and, month, &L(i., the name of the particular place, people, 
&c., referred to, is generally placed after them, depending 
upon of; as, the city of Boston; the island of Malta; the 
month of April. But with the term river, the name of the par- 
ticular river is either in apposition, or stands before it, form- 
ing with it a compound epithet ; as, the river Thames, the 
Merrimac river. 

Q. What is a simple, and what a compound attributive ? 

10. When a noun is defined in only one of the above 



SIMPLE SENTENCES. 145 

ways, it is said to have a simple attributive^ but when it 
is defined by several attributive words, it is said to have 
a compound attributive ; as, the man, right action (sim- 
ple) ; the good man, many good men, a man q/ fine tal- 
ents (compound). 

Exercise XXVII. 

I Point out the attributives, and explain the nature of their limita- 
\ tions, in the first set of examples, and form sentences with 
similar attributives, in the second. 

1. The bright sun has arisen. — A vast number of 
' flies hovered around the carcass. — High hills towered 

above the houses. — A man of lively sympathies feels 
for others' woes. — A youth of great promise presented 
himself. — The marriage contract is sacred. — Charles 
river empties near Boston. — The river Jordan flows into 

' the Dead Sea. — The Isle of Man lies in the Irish Sea. 

The dog, a faithful friend, kept watch over the body. 

Model. — The bright sun has arisen. The and bright 
are the only attributive words in the sentence, forming 

, the compound attribute of sun. The refers to the sun as 
definitely known, and bright to a prominent quality be- 
longing to it. 

2. Ship, truth, William, frost, lawyer, bird, river, 
Crete, house, gold, crown, sheep, lead. 

Model. — Ship, The curved ship cuts the waves ; 
the ship, with her sails spread, leaves the port, &c. 



10 



146 SYNTAX. 



SECTION III. 

the simple sentence with its predicate 
modified. 

§ 43. Classification of Objects. 
Q. What is an object ? 

An object is any thing which defines or completes a 
predicate. The adverb simply defines, other objects 
complete ; and they may all be said to limit the predi- 
cate. There are : — 

Q. What is a direct object ? 

1. The direct substantive object of an active verb, i. e. 
the noun or pronoun iii the objective case after a verb, ' 
and without a preposition ; as, the boy strikes his7ioojpi 

Q. What is an indirect object ? 

2. The indirect substantive object of an intransitive 
verb, i. e. a noun or pronoun governed by a preposition, 
after intransitive verbs ; as, he disappeared in the dis- 
tance, 

Q. What other kinds of objects ? 

3. An adverb ; as, the boy sleeps sweetly, 

4. The infinitive mode ; as, I wish to go. 

5. The participle ; as, I saw him running, . 

Q. What are Rems. I and 2 ? 

Rem. 1. The infinitive is not always an object, but often a 
subject ; as, ^o err is human. So a participle is often an at- 
tributive ; as, a blooming rose. See ^47. 6. 



SIMPLE SENTENCES. 147 

^' Rem. 2. A predicate may be limited by one, or two, or 
** more of these objects, at the same time. 



§ 44. Modification by a Direct Substantive 
Object. 

Q. What is the first class of verbs which take a direct object? 

1. Verbs denoting any action which produces a result 
>) or effect may take a noun after them (or limiting them), 

djenoting the effect produced ; as, to write a letter^ to 
make u shoe, 

Q. What the second class, and what the kind of object ? 

2. Most intmnsitive, as well as transitive verbs, may 
take as an object a noun of kindred origin or meaning 
with themselves; as, to fight a fight ^ run a race^ conquer 
a peace^{i. e. gain a peace by conquering), &c. 

Q. Is the object always directly related to the verb ? 

Rem. 1. The noun is not always directly related to the 
verb in its origin, but often must be considered as some attrib- 
utive to the kindred noun ; as, to look terror (i. e. to look a 
terrific look) , to look daggers^ to breathe rage. So with ad- 
jectives : to look meek (i. e. to look a meek look) ^ the rose smells 
sweet (not meekly^ sweetly, unless the manner of the action is 
intended) . 

Q. What kind of object follows the third class of verbs ? 

3. Most other active verbs take as an object the ol- 
ject (person or thing) acted upon ; as, to break a sticky 
to honor the king. 

Q. What is said of certain verbs ? 

Rem. 2. It will be recollected that many verbs are transi- 



148 SYNTAX. 

tive in one connection, and intransitive in another; and that 
many intransitive verbs become transitive by taking a prep- 
osition after them. See ^40. 3 and 4. 

Q. What are the verbs of the fourth class, and what kind of ob- 
ject do they take ? 

4. Verbs of motion generally take the space^ way^ 
distance^ and time of the action^ and verbs denoting 
w^eighing, measuring, and valuing, the quan- 
tity or value, as an object, without a preposition ; as, the 
man walked ten miles ; the hay weighed a ton ; the gold- 
dust was worth (or valued at) a thousand dollars. 

Q. What verbs take two direct objects ? 

5. Verbs signifying to do well or ill, and generally 
those signifying to ask, teach, offer, promise, pay, tell, 
allow, deny, and some others of like meaning, take two 
objects after them without a preposition, one of the per- 
son and one of the thing ; as, I did him an injury ; he 
allowed me great liberty, 

Q. What is the construction of such verbs in the passive ? 

Rem. 3. In the passive, the above verbs retain one object, 
while the other becomes the nominative ; as, great liberty was 
allowed me, or I was allowed great liberty. 

Q. What verbs take a direct and a predicative object ? 

6. Two objects, also, one direct and one predicative 
object (often an adjective), are used after verbs signify- 
ing to make, choose, appoint, regard, show, find, call, 
name, and the like ; as, the teacher called the pupil a 
blockhead ; the soldiers made a corporal their captain ; 
the painter painted (i. e. made by painting) the door 
green. 



SIMPLE SENTENCES. 149 

J«? Q. What is said of the use of as or for with these verbs ? 

-^1 ' Rem. 4. One of the particles as or for is sometimes used 
before the predicative object with some of these verbs, as, to 
complain of, censure, recognize, receive, give, &c. ; as, to 
choose a5 a leader; to take for a gift; to recognize as a 
friend. — The passive of verbs of this class has a double nom- 
inative. See ^39. 4. 

Q. What verbs take a direct and an indirect object ? 

7. Very many active verbs take an indirect object, in 
addition to the direct one ; as, I have opened my mind 
to you ; I will discuss the question with you, 

.:■ Q. What is said of the passive here ? 

Rem. 5. Here, in the passive construction, the direct ob- 
ject generally becomes the subject, and the indirect object re- 
mains unchanged ; as, my mind has been opened to you. 

Q. What is the rule ? 

General Rule. The direct object of a transitive 
verb is in the objective case, and is governed by the 
iverb. The indirect substantive object is said to be gov- 
erned by its preposition. 

Exercise XXTIII. 

Point out the objects, and apply the rules, in the first set of ex- 
amples, and construct sentences with appropriate objects to the 
second, 

1. He broke the seal. — The sun lighted the scene. — 
The carpenter made a house. — My friend has gone a 
journey. — I walk three miles every morning. — The 
watch cost fifty dollars. — The general gained a victory. 
— The minister tells us the truth. — The doctor cures 



150 SYNTAX. 

his patients. — The sick man was told the worst of his 
case. — They called the child Jesus. — I assisted him in 
his labors. 

Model. — He broke the seal. Seal is the objective 
limitation of the predicate, expressing the object acted 
upon, according to No. 3, and is governed by broke. 

2. Cut, build, burn, hunt, fight, furnish, flee, bruise, 
honor, ride, allow, teach, show, disclose. 

Model. — Cut. The boy cuts wood, cut a gash in his 
finger with his knife, &c. 

§ 45* Modification by an Indirect Substantive 
Object. 

Q. What is an indirect object, and how is the noun said to be 
governed ? 

1. The indirect object of a verb is expressed by a 
noun preceded by a preposition. In such an objective 
limitation, the noun is said to be in the objective case^ 
and governed by the preposition; as, he slept in the 
garret. 

Q. What kind of verbs take only the indirect object, and what 
take both 1 

2. Intransitive verbs take only the indirect object, 
while most transitive verbs take it in addition to the di- 
rect object ; as, the bird flew into the air ; I met my 
friend at the corner, 

Q. What are the three kinds of relation expressed by the indi- 
rect object ? 

3. The relations expressed by the indirect object are 
generally either local (expressing the place^ limits or 



SIMPLE SENTENCES. 151 

' scene) ^ temporal (referring to time)^ or causal ; constitut- 
ing the local object^ the temporal object^ and the causal 
object, 

I. Local Relations of the Indirect Object (Local 
Object). 

Q. How is locality implying a motion expressed ? 

1. Locality implying a motion is expressed by a noun 
(designating either a person or thing) in connection with 
one of the prepositions about ^ across^ against^ along ^ 
around^ rounds athwart^ down^ from^ into^ through^ 
throughout^ to,, unto,, toward,, towards ; also wear, nigh,^ 
and many others, which are capable of being used either 
in case of motion or rest ; as, he walked around the 
house ; he sent a present to his friend ; he drew near the 
city, or, he stood near the city. 

Q. How locality implying rest ? 

2. Locality implying rest is expressed by a noun with 
one of the prepositions above,, at,, by,, in,, on,, upon,, with, 
within, without ; also many others, which may be used 
in cases both of rest and motion. 

Q. What are the prepositions which may be used in cases both 
of motion and rest ? 

Rem. 1. The prepositions which may be used in cases 
both of rest and motion are above, after, among, amongst, 
amid, amidst, around, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, be- 
tween, betwixt, beyond, down, near, next, nigh, off, over, un- 
der; and sometimes across, athwart, imply rest. 

Q, What does a personal noun with to or for often express ? 
Rem. 2. With the prepositions to and for, a noun, espe- 



152 SYNTAX. 

cially when it refers to a person, or something conceived of a^ 
a person, often expresses, not merely the limit or scene of an 
action, but an iyiterested object. This is expressed in the Latin 
by the dative case, which does not exist in our language ; as, 
the soldiers gave the booty to their general; ardent spirits are 
hurtful to men, 

11. Temporal Relations of the Indirect Object (Tem- 
poral Object). 

Q. How is a point of time expressed as an object ? 

1. A point of time is expressed as an object by a noun 
in connection with one of the prepositions about ^ after ^ 
at^ before^ between^ betwixt^ since^ iill^ until,, to ; as, I 
met him about noon ; the school continued till twelve 
o^clock, 

Q. How duration of time 1 

2. Duration of time is expressed as an object by a 
noun with one of the prepositions about,, during,^ foty 
through,, and throughout ; as, the school continued about 
four hours ; I continued the exercise for four hours to- 
gether. 

in. Causal Relations of the Indirect Object (Causal 
Object), 

Q. How is the cause^ &c., expressed as an object ? 

1. The cause,, means,, manner (which is often causal)^ 
instrument,, evidence,, ground,, and material wee expressed 
as an object by a noun with one of the prepositions of 
for,, on account of through,, with,, without,, in,, on,, hy^ 
hy means of from,, out of at,, about, in consequence of 
after, according to, in accordance with, against, contra'^ 
ry to, notwitstandi?ig, in spite of, and other compound 



SIMPLE SENTENCES. 153 

prepositional expressions of a similar nature ; as, the 
man died of hunger (cause) ; he made a fortune hy 
trade (means) ; I know it hy experience (manner or 
ground) ; I write with a pen (instrument or manner) ; 
we reckon in this way (manner) ; the rope was made 
from (or o/) hemp (material). 

Q. How the motive and purpose ? 

2. The motive and purpose are expressed as an object 
by a noun with the prepositions from^ on account of 
for the sake of out of regard to ; to^ for^ in order to^ 
for the purpose of; as, I study from the love of it (mo- 
tive) ; God chastises us for our good (purpose or object). 

Q. How is the cause or agent expressed with a passive verb ? 

Rem. 3. The cause or agent with a passive verb is ex- 
pressed by a noun with hy ; or by with, to denote an internal or 
accompanying agent, or from, where the cause is represented 
as the source ; as, I am smitten hy an invisible hand; I am 
seized with a passion for glory ; I am exhausted from hunger. 

Q. What does the term cause include here ? 

Rem. 4. The term cause, as used above, is taken in a com- 
prehensive sense, as including whatever occasions, justifies, 
calls forth, embraces, or excites to an action. In this compre- 
hensive sense many phrases will be found to be causal which 
are not generally regarded so ; as, desirous of gold (gold being 
the exciting cause of the desire) ; many of them (i. e. out of 
them, embraced by, and hence originating in them) ; to be 
weary of life (life is the cause of the weariness) ; sharp to th£ 
taste (in the judgment of the taste, proved by the taste) ; to 
translate word /or word (i. e. to employ every word in a trans- 
lation out of regard to the meaning of the corresponding words 
in the original). 



154 " , ■ '^-'SYNTAX. 

Q. What is said of the amission of prepositions, and of their 
use ^ter nouns 1 - 

Rem. 5. Prepositions are often omitted before their nouns 
after rSome> verbs {see ^44. v5) and the adjective like; as, he 
is like his bjrother (like^o). On the contrary, they are fre- 
quently found with nouns after adjectives and other nouns, ex- 
pressing the same limitations as after verbs ; as, a passion for 
glory ; a man venerable for his age. 

Q. What cases are used with interjections ? 

Rem. 6. The objective case, also, is used after the inter- 
jections ah, alas, without a preposition ; but the noun or pro- 
noun after other interjections is in the nominative case, or, 
more properly, the voea/itJe, . or case of direct address. See 
§34, Rem. 2. 

'''■ '■ Exercise XXIX. _ 

Point out and classify the indirect objects in the first set of ex- 
amples, and construct sentence with similar (Ejects to the seo 
ond set, ^ ■■> 

1. He smote him on the mouth. —^ He reached out 
his hand to the stranger. — The bird sits upon the branch 
and sings. — The number was increased to twenty. — I 
have not been home for a year. — The belh will ring by 
nine. — My friend has been to France, and returned, 
since Christmas. — The man is greedy of gain. — The 
prisoner is accused of murder. — The good man prac- 
tises virtue from the love of virtue. —-The soldier fights 
for glory. — I sold my watch for a guinea. ^ — Alas me ! 
I am undone. , 

Model. — He smot^ hiva an the mouth, ^The indirect 
object here is locals since it indicates the :|?Zace where^ 



SIMPLE SENTENCES. 



155 



and is expressed by the words on the mouth, of which 
the noun modified hy the is governed by the preposition 



on. 



2. Friend, cow, book, school, dinner, wat^r, store, 
harvest, cap, ear, foot, spring, money, justice. 
■ Model. — Friemd, I met my friend at the tavern ; I 
sent a present to my friend. 

- - - . ■ i_; i -.'-^ ^ 

§ 46. Modification by an Adverbial Object. 
Q. What is the first limitation expressed by adverbs ? 
1. Adverbs express a local limitation ; as, to look w^?, 
. upwards, downwards, here, there, yonder, eastward, 
forivard, backward, 6zc. 

Q. What the second? 
\m 2. Adverbs express a temporal limitation ; as, I ex- 
>^ect my friend daily, hourly, to-morrow, continually, 
' &c. ; I will wait while you get the book, &c. 

Q. What the third ? 

3 Adverbs express a modal object, indicating the 
, manner of the action ; as, the child sleeps sweetly, plays 
: rudely, &c. 

Q What are modal adverbs ■? 

Rem 1 But what are commonly called modal adverbs do 
not so much limit the predicate, a. qualify or affect the char- 
; acter of the whole assertion, rendering, it pasittve or negattve,^^ 
I ^finite or indefinite, «r/«in, ««-'«-> - °f -^ T7^^ 
character ; as, it is not lawfiil ; I say yes or no; this is tr^r 
' (or possibly, probably, percMnce, &o.) so ; wJience comes thia 
Strife! 



156 SYNTAX. 

Q. What is the effect of two negatives ? 

4. Two negatives, in English, referring to the same 
thing, destroy each other, and leave the assertion affirm- 
ative ; as, nor did they not perceive him (i. e. they did 
perceive him) ; nor have I no money ; nor was he un- 
known to me. 

Q. What is said of adverbs of intensity 1 

Rem. 2. Most adverbs of intensity, as rather, too, very, 
wholly, quite, so, as, &c., do not express an objective relation, 
but strengthen the meaning of adjectives and other adverbs ; 
as, too great, quite too great, &c. For a fuller list of the ad- 
verbs of this and the other classes, see ^31. 

Rem. 3. The adverb, it will be seen, expresses the same 
general relations as the indirect substantive object, with the 
exception of the relation of causality. 

General 'Rule, An adverb may limit a verb^ adjeC' 
tive^ or other adverb, 

Exercise XXX. 

Point out and classify the adverbial limitations in the first set of 
examples, and construct sentences with similar limitations to the 
second. 

1. The birds sing sweetly. — I see my friend yonder. 

— I shall reach home to-morrow. — We should look up- 
wards for help. — I verily believe it is so. — There are 
quite too many rogues in the community. — Some do not 
know how to say no. — I looked eastward and westward. 

— I will come again to-morrow. 



SIMPLE SENTENCES. 157 

Model. — The birds sing sweetly. Sweetly is an ad- 
verbial object expressing manner, 

2, Horse, sleigh, top, grass, river, much, to revile, to 
answer, to say, to look, night, to come, snow, ice. 

Model. — Horse. The horse carries himself proud- 
ly ; the horse leaped quite over the wall. 

§ 47. Modification by the Infinitive and Parti- 
ciple (Verbal Object). 

Q. What does the infinitive express 1 

The infinitive expresses the abstract idea of the verb, 
and hence is properly a substantive. As a substantive, 
of course, it may be either a subject or an object. As a 
subject it needs no special treatment, but as an object, 
i. e. that which limits^ completes^ or expresses the aim or 
result of some action, it is used as follows : — 

Q. What is the first class of verbs with which the infinitive is 
used as an object ? 

1. With verbs (and adjectives) which denote an act 
or expression of the will; as, ^o will, wish, le 
desirous, (and their opposites,) strive, endeavour, seek, 
resolve, determine, design, purpose, intend, expect, hope, 
undertake, venture, dare, demand, require, request, com- 
mand^ persuade, incite, encourage, admonish, ivarn, ex- 
hort, let, permit, allow, promise, vouchsafe; also their 
opposites, to forbid, refuse, hesitate, fear, dread, &;c. 

Q. With what verbs is the infinitive of the verb to be used, and 
what is their construction in other cases ? 

2. The infinitive of the verb to be (which is sometimes 



158 SYNTAX. 

omitted when it and another infinitive follows) is used 
after verbs which denote an action of some power of the 
mind, or the expression of it ; as, to thinks believe^ sup- 
pose^ assert^ declare^ and the like. In most other cases, 
these verbs take a substantive sentence after them (gen- 
erally without that expressed) instead of the infinitive ; 
as, I believe it to he true ; I found it (i. e. to he) to no 
purpose to resist ; I believe he will come, 

Q. What is said of some other verbs ? 

Rem. 1. Some of the other verbs, also, which usually take 
an infinitive, sometimes take a substantive sentence after them ; 
as, I educated you that you might serve me. 

Q. What is the third class of verbs with which the infinitive is 
used? 

3. After verbs which denote ability^ power ^ causa- 
tion^ faculty^ permission^, choosing^ appointing^ naming^ 
teachings educating^ and the like ; as, I am able to do 
this ; I will make him do {\, e. to do) it ; I will teach 
you to write ; it is lawful for you to speak, 

Q. What the fourth class, and what does the infinitive common- 
ly express ? 

4. The infinitive is used mostly to express a pur- 
pose after verbs of goings coming.^ sending., giving., 
taking., and the like ; also, to he horn., it is proper,, just., 
useful., necessary., agreeable., pleasing., easy., hard, and 
many other adjectives and abstract nouns in connection 
with the verb to he ; as, I sent to learn your condition 
(i. e. for the purpose of learning) ; Csesar was born to 
rule ; it is proper to do it ( = that one should do it) ; 
there is a desire to know the result. 



SIMPLE SENTENCES. 159 

Rem. 2. For the omission of to before the infinitive with 
certain verbs, see ^24, Rem. 3. — Before the infinitive ex- 
pressing purpose, in order, with intent, are often used. 

Q. When is the present and when the perfect infinitive used ? 

Rem. 3. The present or perfect infinitive is used accord- 
ing as the time referred to by it is contemporaneous or antece- 
dent to the time of the principal verb ; as, I expected to see 
him ; he claimed to have written the letter (the letter having 
been written previous to the claim) . 

(^. What is said of the substantive object after verbs which take 
an infinitive ? 

5. Most of the verbs which take an infinitive after 
them take also a substantive object (either a noun or 
pronoun), direct or indirect, according to the character 
of the verb, which generally serves, also, as the subject 
of the infinitive. In this case, when the infinitive is the 
verb to be (or any verb capable of taking a predicative 
adjective or noun after it), the predicative adjective, noun, 
or pronoun after the infinitive is in the same case as the 
noun or pronoun before it, namely, the ohjective ; as, I 
ask you to come ; I know it to he him. 

Q. How does it appear that the verb to be must always take the 
same case after it as before it ? 

Rem. 4. Some have contended that the pronoun in the 
predicate, here, should be in the nominative instead of the ob- 
jective. But this is contrary to the analogy of the Latin and 
Greek, and inconsistent in itself; since, if it is not in the ob- 
jective case, to correspond with the case before the copula, as 
predicative words always do, it has no government whatever. 
But where there is no case before to be, or the nominative case, 
the predicative word is also in the nominative ; as, '' to be the 
slave of passion is, of all slavery, the most wretched." Here 



160 SYNTAX. 

slave is in the nominative, since the full form would be, ^* for 
one to be the slave of passion," or, ''the fact that one is the 
slave of passion," the whole phrase forming the subject of the 
following verb. So where the whole phrase is the object of a 
verb ; as, '' it is supposed to be Ae " = it is supposed that it is 
he. 

Q. When is the infinitive absolute 1 

Rem. 5. The infinitive is sometimes used absolutely, with- 
out any dependence ; as, ^o speak the truth, we are all liable to 
error ; to be sure, this is unexpected. 

Q. How does the participle modify a predicate, and how does it 
differ from the infinitive ? 

6. The participle is properly an attributive, but when 
placed after the object of a verb it has very much the 
same modifying or completing force as the infilnitive, ex- 
cept that the infinitive represents the action abstractly, 
while the participle represents it as performing (present 
participle) or performed (past participle) ; as, I saw a 
man running (compare, I saw him run) ; I saw the man 
hung, 

Q. When are a noun and participle independent ? 

Rem. 6. The participle joined to a noun often stands inde- 
pendent of the rest of the sentence ; as, the sun being up, we 
arose and departed. Sometimes the participle is understood. 
This is called the nominative absolute. 

Q. How may the idea of a participle often be expressed ? 

Rem. 7. The idea of the participle may often be expressed 
by a subordinate sentence introduced by who, which, ivhile, as, 
after, when, if, because, since, or although; as, the sun having 
risen, = when the sun had risen; Balbus, having a sword (or 
who had a sword) , drew it. 



SIMPLE SENTENCES. 161 

Q. How is the present participle often used ? 

7. The present participle is often used as an abstract 
substantive, forming either the subject or object of a verb, 
or depending upon a preposition ; as, hunting is agree- 
able ; I love dancing ; the fear of dying, 

Q. How is the present participle often used to express a com- 
bined substantive idea ? 

Rem. 8. The participle, generally with both attributive 
and predicative limitations, is often used to express a com- 
bined substantive idea, which is commonly indicated, v/here 
the expression would not be too difficult, by giving the word 
before the participle (when susceptible of it) the possessive 
form ; as, their being at enmity, or one^s being at enmity with 
the other, was the cause of perpetual discord ; the reason of 
there being no crop was, that there was no rain ; his being des- 
titute of clothing made him a subject of charity. But often the 
sign of the possessive is omitted ; as, " on Captain Hall com- 
ing to land." See ^14, Rem. 2. 

Rem. 9. When the participle of the verbs to be, become, 
and of other verbs which form an incomplete predicate, is used, 
in such a combined substantive idea, the noun, pronoun, or ad- 
jective in the predicate, after the participle, is in the nomina- 
tive, just as with the infinitive (see Rem. 4) ; as, its being a 
woman (= that it is a woman) makes the case more difficult ; 
he was not sure of its being I (= that it was I) . 

Q. What is* said of an object itself having an object ? 

8. A verbal object may itself have another object, 
which then, relatively to the principal verb, becomes a 
compound object ; as, I endeavour to do my duty. Here 
my duty depends upon to do^ and this upon endeavour. 

11 



162 SYNTAX. 

General Rule. The infinitive is governed by the 
verb which it limits, and the participle belongs to its 
noun, like an adjective ; while, in turn, each may itself 
be limited in the same manner as its verb. 



Exercise XXXI. 

Point out and give the rules for the verbal objects in the first set 
of examples, and construct sentences with similar objects to the 
second. 

1. The child tries to learn. — I am resolved to go. — 
The young bird endeavours to fly. — I wish to know the 
truth. — All desire to be happy. — A hireling sees the 
wolf coming and flees. — We read to learn. — We go to 
school to learn. — I know it to be the truth. — I believe 
it to be him. — Sickness is hard to bear. — It is neces- 
sary to be active. 

Model. — The child tries to learn. To learn is a 
verbal object limiting tries ^ according to No. 1. 

2. To long, wish, see, ask, think, easy, ready, be- 
lieve, persuade, allow, incite, forbid, teach. 

Model. — To long. The good man longs to depart, 
&;c. 

Exercise XXXII. (General.) 

Parse each word in the first set of examples according to the pre^ 
ceding principles, and correct the errors in the second, 

1. Time hastens away. — The sad reality must be 
told. — Money cannot purchase exemption from death. 
— This gold is from Peru, that is from California. — The 



SIMPLE SENTENCES. 163 

end of life will soon come to all. — The good man 
shrinks not from death. — I sent for him to come to me. 
— The good hope to meet again in another world. — 
The birds sing sweetly in the woods. — Lofty trees, ven- 
erable by age, surround the house. -^ A handful of ad- 
venturers took possession of the island. — Alexander, 
king of Macedonia, was called the Great. — To err is 
human, to forgive divine. — All deserted the ship, some 
in one way, and some in another. — I heard a voice say- 
ing to me. Come hither. — Many good men have suffered 
the severest persecution on earth. — I did not send for 
you without cause. — The cause of one epithet following 
another in quick succession, in the style of Cicero, is the 
exuberance of his thoughts. — The interest flagging, the 
speaker told an anecdote. — Money is useless without 
inteUigence and virtue. — I left home after dinner, with 
my dog and gun, to hunt partridges. 

Model. — Time hastens away. Time is a noun in the 
singular number, nominative case to the verb hastens^ of 
which it is the subject ; hastens is a verb, constituting the 
predicate of the sentence, in the third person, singular 
number, indicative mode, and active voice, agreeing with 
its subject time ; away is an adverb, expressing a local 
limitation of the predicate hastens. 

2. I and you was brought up farmers. — Give me 
them boots. — Those sort of folks I do not like. — It is 
me. — It was him. — I know it is him. — I know it to 
be he. — I think to become happy. — Its being me need 
not affect your decision. — I will to love. — The father 
allows to his son great liberty. — Victoria is king of Eng- 



164 SYNTAX. 

land. — An unicorn is inferior to a lion. — Many and 
good men pass through life unknown. 

Model. — I and you was brought up farmers. Was 
should be ivere^ since it refers to two subjects connected 
by and for its nominative (§39, Rule V.). 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 165 

CHAPTER II. 

COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

SECTION I. 

coordinate compound sentences. 

<§ 48. Classification and Treatment of Coordi- 
nate Sentences. 

Q. What are coordinate, and what subordinate sentences ? 

1. When thoughts having a common relation to each 
other are so expressed that neither seems subordinate to 
the other, but all equally independent, the separate sen- 
tences or clauses are said to hold a coordinate (i. e. 
mutually independent) relation to each other, and the 
clauses thus united are called a Compound Coordinate 
Sentence ; as, Cicero was eloquent and Demosthenes was 
eloquent. But when it is said, " if Cicero was eloquent, 
Demosthenes certainly was," the clause with if expresses 
a mere hypothesis without any assertion, while the other 
makes an assertion dependent upon this condition. The 
former, therefore, is subordinate to the latter. Such 
sentences are called Compound Subordinate Sentences, 

2. Coordinate sentences are of the following class- 
es : — 

Q. What is the first class of coordinate sentences, and how are 
they connected 1 

1) Copulative coordinate sentences, connected either 



166 SYNTAX. 

by and^ also {and so^ and so also)^ and not^ loth — and^ 
as well — as (which simply unite sentences of equal im- 
portance), or not only — hut or hut also (which gives 
greater emphasis and weight to the last member) ; as, 
the boy goes to school and learns, or, the boy 7iot only 
goes to school, hut (what is more important or more un- 
expected) learns. 

Q. What the second class, &c. ? 

2) Adversative coordinate sentences, connected by 
hut^ yet^ stilly hut yet^ hut stilly nevertJteless^ which rep- 
resent the action implied in the second member as taking 
place in opposition to that of the first, and sometimes, 
especially when the first member is negative, to its entire-- 
rejection ; as, the man is poor, hut virtuous (i. e. notwith-i 
standing the objection of poverty, he is nevertheless vir-^ 
tuous) ; he is not rich, hut poor (here the idea of the first 
member is set aside). 

Rem. 1. But sometimes means only (adverb), and some- 
times except (preposition) ; as, but one week; nothing but vex- 
ation. 

Q. What often stand in the first of two adversative clauses ? 

Rem. 2. The concessive conjunctional words and phrases, 
indeed, true, in truth, to be sure, no doubt, I admit, while, &c., 
often stand in the first of two adversative clauses to make the'^ 
contrast between the two clauses stronger ; as, I am poor, I^ 
admit, but honest. But with although, &c., in the first clause,^ 
the sentence becomes subordinate. (See ^52. V.) 

Q. What the third class, &c. ? 

3) Disjunctive or alternative coordinate sentences, 
connected by either — or, neither — nor^ whether — or, 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 167 

^ combining two ideas, only one of which can be admit- 
ted, but without deciding which, and in the case of wheth- 
er — or implying utter ignorance or unconcern which 
may be adopted. 

Rem. 3. Either is often omitted, leaving or alone ; as, 
confess o?' die. 

Q. What the fourth class, &c. ? 

4) Causal coordinate sentences, connected by for^ 
{andfor^for olso^for evcn)^ the latter member of which 
gives as a subsequent thought an independent reason for 
the idea contained in the former ; as, I know the man, 
for he is my neighbour. But where the cause is ex- 
pressed as the direct and antecedent, or at least contem,' 
poraneous ground of the principal thought, the cause be- 
comes subordinate, in which case the conjunction is not 
ybr, but because^ since^ dec. (See § 52. III. 2.) 

Q. What the fifth class, &c. ? 

5) Illative or deductive coordinate sentences, con- 
nected by therefore^ thus^ then^ hence^ ivhence, loherefore^ 
accordingly^ consequently^ and the conjunctive expres- 
sions, on this account^ for this reason^ &c. Sentences 
with these conjunctions express, with different shades of 
meaning, the conclusion or inference from the preceding 
sentence ; as, I know the man, hence I have confidence 
in him. 

Q. What is said of several predicates referring to one subject ? 

3. A common subject, predicate, or object is often 
omitted in all but one of several coordinate sentences 
(§ 38, Rem. 5). Several predicates, in different clauses, 



I 



168 SYNTAX. 

referring thus to a common subject, which is under- 
stood in all but one, must he in the same number^ per- 
son^ mode^ and tense. 

General Rule. Coordinate conjunctions connect 
independent sentences, or words when the sentences 
are abridged. 

Exercise XXXIII. 

Analyze and classify these sentences according to the preceding 

principles. 

1. They ate, and drank, and were merry. — Socrates 
and Plato were wise men. — Let men not only talk, but 
act. — Although I am poor, yet I will not beg. — Not 
the righteous, but sinners, are called to repentance. — I 
admire Webster, for he is a great orator. — Wisdom is 
the principal thing, therefore get wisdom. — My neigh-, 
hour has injured me, hence 1 must seek redress. — The 
stage comes and goes every day. 

Model. — They ate^ and drank^ and were merry. 
These are copulative coordinate sentences, having a 
common subject {they)^ which, as usual, is expressed in 
only one clause. The sentences, being connected by 
and^ are represented as of equal importance, and the 
predicates, referring to a common subject, are all in the 
same number, person, mode, and tense. 

Form different classes of coordinate sentences to these examples. 

2. Men, cat, beaver, Cicero, child, virtue, scholar, I^ 
you, justice. 

Model. — Men, Men are both good and bad ; men 
have reason, but too little justice. 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 169 

SECTION II. 
subordinate compound sentences. 

§49. Nature and Classification of Subordinate 

Sentences. 

Q. What is a subordinate compound sentence ? 

1. A subordinate compound sentence is a sentence 
in which only one clause expresses any assertion, while 
the other expresses merely the cause^ condition^ or some 
other limitation of it. The former is called the princi- 
pal clause or sentence, the latter the subordinate ; as, 
when the spring comes, the flowers bloom. 

2. Subordinate sentences are of three kinds : — 

Q. What is the first kind of subordinate sentence 1 

1) Substantive sentences, i. e. such as express the 
same relations to the predicate of the principal clause 
of the compound sentence as a substantive in its differ- 
ent cases does in the simple sentence, always serving 
either as subject^ object^ or attribute ; as, I rejoice that 
you are well^ = I rejoice at your health. 

Q. What the second kind 1 

2) Adjective sentences, i. e. such as express an at- 
tributive relation to the subject or object of the principal 
clause of the compound sentence, and are equivalent to 
an adjective or participle ; as, the rose which blooms 
(= the blooming rose) is beautiful. 

Q. What the third kind 1 

3) Adverbial sentences, which express the relations 



170 * SYNTAX. 

of iime^ place^ and manner^ like adverbs and adverbial 
phrases ; as, after the enemy was conquered (= on con- 
quering the enemy) ^ our soldiers returned. 

Q. What of inteiTOgative sentences ? 

Rem. 1. Dependent interrogative sentences are subordi- 
nate, but of no particular class, and, like independent interrog- 
ative sentences, do not differ from other sentences of their 
class, except in their interrogative character. They will be 
treated of after other subordinate sentences. 

Q. What of the succession of tenses in compound sentences ? 

Rem. 2. In the two clauses of a compound sentence, a 
present, perfect, or future tense may each be followed by a 
present, to denote a contemporaneous action, by a perfect, 
to denote a completed action, or by a future, to denote a future 
action. And in the same way, an imperfect or pluperfect tense 
may each be followed by an imperfect or pluperfect. The 
verb in the subordinate clause must be in the indicative or 
subjunctive (potential) mode, according as the case demands. 
(See ^ 40. III. 3.) Thus we have, I know what you are do- "' 
ing, have done, will do ; I knew what you did, would do, had ' 
done, &c. 

Rem. 3. But where past actions are expressed as present, 
and present as past, the tenses in the subordinate clauses gen- • 
erally correspond to the actual time of the action, and not to the 
strict tense time; as, '' I am come (i. e. I came and am still 
here) that you might have life." 

Exercise XXXIV. 

Point out and classify the subordinate clauses in these examples, 

I know that my Redeemer liveth. ^When the sol- 
diers had encamped before the city, the enemy capitu- 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 171 

lated. — After many lowery days the sun made his ap- 
pearance. — The friend who accompanied me on the 
journey is dead. — The apples, which grew upon the 
trees, have fallen to the ground. — I had hoped that my 
friend would recover. 

Model. — / know that my Redeemer liveth. That my 
Redeemer liveth is a substantive sentence, expressing an 
objective limitation to the verb (know) of the principal 
clause. 

§ 50, Substantive Sentences. 
Q. What is the first class of substantive sentences, what called, 

&C.'? 

1. Substantive sentences are such as express the di- 
rect object of verbs of perceiving and declaring^ or those 
denoting an action of the mind, or its expression. These 
are introduced by that (which, however, is often omitted), 
and may be called direct objective substantive sentences ; 
as, I know that my Redeemer liveth ; I think (that) he 
will come, 

Q. What the second class, what are they introduced by, and 
what do they follow ? 

2. Such as give an explanation or ground of the pred- 
icate, or some other word of the principal sentence. 
These usually express an indirect substantive object, 
and may be called explanatory substantive sentences. 
They are introduced by that or becau^e^ and follow 
verbs signifying to happen^ to be proper^ well^ praise^ 
hlame^ and the like ; also verbs signifying an affection 
of the mind^ as to grieve^ rejoice^ &c. ; as, 1 rejoice 



172 SYNTAX. 

that you are well ; I praise you, because you have been 
faithful, 

Q. What the third class, &c. ? 

3. 'Such as express an intention^ purpose^ end^ conse- 
quence^ or result^ and may be called fnal substantive sen- 
tences. These are introduced by that (in order that)^ 
that not^ lest^ after verbs signifying to demand^ direct^ 
deny^ wish^ fear^ not to doubt^ it happens^ remains^ and 
the Hke ; also, after 50, so great ^ such^ in the principal 
clause, and many other verbs and expressions ; as, I de- 
ny that it is so ; I wish (that) it was so ; it remains that 
I speak concerning virtue ; I fear that the report is true ; 
his greatest concern was lest the conviction of his friend 
might injure him (or that it might), 

Q. What of that after so and such ? 

Rem. 1. After so or such, that expresses a consequence or. 
result, and its sentence is more properly adverbial than sub- 
stantive; as, they 50 spake, that 2l great multitude believed. 
In like manner, as, with the infinitive, expresses a consequence 
after these words ; as, he is so as to be about. 

Q. What is the construction with verbs denoting an operation, 
of the will, also verbs of hindering ^ &c. ? 

Rem. 2. Most verbs implying an operation of the will, as 
to ask, permit, &c., generally take the infinitive instead of a 
substantive sentence, while most verbs of hindering, prevent- 
ing, &c., either take as their object a present participle hav- 
ing a possessive pronoun or noun in the possessive case be- 
longing to it, or a noun or pronoun in the objective case with 
a participle after it, governed hy from.; as, the river prevented 
his proceeding, or prevented him from proceeding. See § 47, 
Rem. 8. 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 173 

Q. What of but that and lest not ? 

Rem. 3. After expressions denoting hindering, not doubt- 
ing, and the like, but that is sometimes used instead of that, 
and after expressions of fearing, lest not instead of lest or that 
not; as, I do not doubt but that it is true ; I fear lest he may 
not come. Such expressions are of doubtful accuracy, and 
should be avoided. 

Rem. 4. When introducing a sentence thus, and not refer 
ring to an antecedent, that is a conjunction. 

Exercise XXXV. 

Point out and classify the substantive sentences in the first set of 
examples, and construct similar sentences to the second set. 

1. It is meet that we should be serious. — I acknowl- 
edge that I have erred. — I hope that my friend will 
come. — It often happens that duty interferes with incli- 
nation. — The load was so great, that the ass could not 
stand under it. — I demanded that the stolen property 
should be restored. — The culprit denied that he com- 
mitted the crime. — I am so situated that I cannot leave 
home. — Laws are enacted that bad men may be de- 
terred from crime. 

Model. — It is meet that we should he serious. That 
we should he serious is an explanatory substantive sen- 
tence, in apposition with it, 

2. Friend, debtor, doctor, fortune, society, man, fox, 
cat, carpenter, grain, ice. 

Model. — Friend. The friend requested that I would 
visit him ; it fortunately happened that I met my friend 
as he was passing through the town. 



174 SYNTAX. 

§ 51. Adjective Sentences. 

Q. What are adjective sentences introduced by ? 

1. Adjective sentences are introduced by ivlio^ wMch^ 
wliat^ that (relative), whoever^ whosoever^ whatever^ and 
as after such^ referring to a noun or pronoun (or whole 
sentence) expressed or understood, in the principal 
clause, called the antecedent ; as, the man who stole the 
wood has been arrested. 

Q. What is said of what^ whoever^ and other compounds of ever ? 

Rem. 1. What {=that which) has no antecedent, and who- 
ever, and the other compounds with ever, rarely take an ante- 
cedent, even when the preposition is expressed which would 
govern it ; the antecedent of the other relatives also is often 
understood, and sometimes even the relative itself; as, ivhoso- 
ever (i. e. he who) committeth sin is the servant of sin ; ivho 
(i. e. he who) steals my purse steals trash; "Eliza threat- 
ened that she would have the head of whoever (i. e. of him 
who) had advised it" (hence, whomsoever would be incorrect 
here) ; -<:Eneas left Troy the very night it was taken (i. e. in 
which) . 

Q. What of the agreement and case of the relative % 

2. The relative agrees in number and person with its 
antecedent in the principal clause, but its case depends 
upon its office in its own clause ; as, thou who writest ; 
Solomon, who (nominative) built the temple, was the son 
of David ; God, whom (objective) we serve, is the Lord ; 
the man, whose (possessive) likeness this is, is dead. 

Q. What is said of the reference of a relative to the subject or 
predicative noun of the preceding sentence ? 

Rem. 2. When a pronoun of the first or second person has 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 175 

a noun in the predicate after the verb to he, the predicate of 
the following relative may take the person of the pronoun, or 
be in the third person, according as the relative refers to the 
pronoun or the noun for its antecedent; as, " I am the man, 
who command you" (=1, who command you, am the man), 
or, "I am the man who commands you " (=1 am your com- 
mander) . 

Q. What is the usage of the different relatives ? 

3. Of the different relatives, lolio refers only to per- 
sons, or things conceived of as persons, ivhich only to 
things (except in old English, where it sometimes refers 
to persons), and that to either persons or things, or to 
expressions. That is used especially after superla- 
tives, the interrogative or relative loho^ the same., very, 
all, and when the reference is to both men and things ; 
as, Demosthenes was the greatest orator that e^r 
lived ; who is it that I see coming ? it is the same man 
that passed here yesterday ; the men and cities that 
he saw. 

q. What of as? 

4. As is the regular relative, or rather correlative, after 
such, as many, as great, &c. (see § 18. 5) ; as, " there 
are in these writings such inconsistencies as are sufficient 
to blast their authority." 

Q. When do prepositions stand without a case ? 

Rem. 3. Relatives dependent upon a preposition are fre- 
quently understood, and then the preposition stands without a 
case to govern ; as, the proposition you object ^o (i. e. ^o which 
you object) is not mine ; he gave me a knife to cut ivith. 

Q. What of relative adverbs ? 

5. Relative adverbs are sometimes used in the place 



176 SYNTAX. 

of relatives governed by prepositions ; as, " the servant 
was carrying a basket into a grove, where he said his 
master was." 

Exercise XXXVI. 

Point out and explain the attributive force of the adjective sen- 
tences in these examples. Also, all peculiarities in the use or 
omission of the relatives. 

1. The man who passed here yesterday has return- 
ed. — The boy whose leg was amputated has recov- 
ered. — This is the same sword that Byron wore. — The 
pine is the tallest tree that grows in the forest. — The 
news you tell me is what I did not know. — I care not 
of whom you get the money. — The boy carries a stick 
to strike with. — This is the river which I passed over 
yesterday. — The cattle and utensils which you speak 
of are safe. 

Model. — The man who passed here yesterday^ &;e. 
Who passed^ &c., is a relative sentence, bearing an at- 
tributive relation to man (= the man passing here yes- 
terday). The relative who is used, because it refers to 
a noun denoting a person (man), with which it agrees in 
number and person. 

Form sentences, with appropriate adjective clauses, to these 
examples. 

2. Soldier, rice, garden, wind, barn, bread, pay, cane, 
house, street, stone, table, corn, meat, oats, tub. 

Model. — Soldier. The soldier, who was discharged, 
has returned home ; or, the soldier whom I lately saw 
going to the war has returned. 



compound sentences. 177 

§ 52>. Adverbial Sentences. 

I. Adverbial Sentences of Place. 

Q. What are adverbial sentences of place introduced by, and 
what do they express ? 

Adverbial sentences of place are introduced by the 
relative adverbs where^ whence^ whither^ wheresoever^ 
&c., to which the demonstrative adverbs here^ tJiere^ 
Jience^ thence^ hither^ thither^ often correspond in the 
principal clause. They express a local limitation to the 
predicate of the principal clause of the compound sen- 
tence ; as, " where the carcass is, there will the eagles 
be gathered together" (= the eagles will be gathered 
together in the place where the carcass is). 

II. Adverbial Sentences of Time. 

Q, What of the first class of adverbial sentences of time ? 

1. Adverbial sentences designating time contempora- 
neous with the action of the predicate of the principal 
clause are introduced by when^ whenever^ to denote a 
point of time, and by while^ as long as^ whilst^ to denote 
duration of time ; as, when evening came, the stranger 
left ; whilst time lasts, virtue will be honored. 

Q. What of the second class ? 

2. Adverbial sentences denoting time prior to that of 
the principal action are introduced by after^ after that^ 
when (with the pluperfect), since; as, after Caesar had 
drawn up his army, he gave battle to the enemy. 

12 



178 SYNTAX. 

Q. What other expressions denote this relation of tinie ? 

Rem. 1. There are other expressions, also, which denote 
this relation of time, some of which are not properly adverbs, 
and some express a comparison ; as, the moment (i. e. at the- 
moment) , the instant, as soon as, no sooner ■ — than, just — 
when, hardly — before, soon after, not long after, &c. 

Q. What of the third class ? 

3. Adverbial sentences denoting time subsequent to 
that of the principal action are introduced by before^ be- 
fore that^ ere, till^ and until ; as, I told you so before 
you came. 

Q. What is said of lohen^ after, before^ &c. ? 

Rem. 2. As the time is a condition of the principal action, 
the conjunctions when and after are often equal to if, and he- 
fore, till, and until to unless ; as, w^hen he begs my pardon I 
will forgive him {=if he begs, &c.) ; I will not cease before 
(or till) I take the city (= unless I take the city). 

III. Causal Adverbial Sentences. 
Q. What do causal adverbial sentences express ? 

1. Causal adverbial sentences express the cause^ 
ground^ or motive of some action, as an organic part of 
the idea, and not as a separate thought of equal impor- 
tance with that of the principal clause. 

Q. What are they introduced by ? 

2. They are introduced by a5, since^ because^ seeing 
that^ inasmuch as; as, since you desire it^ I will visit 
you. 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 



179 



IV. Conditional Adverbial Sentences. 
Q. What do conditional adverbial sentences express, and by 
I what are they introduced 1 

1. Conditional adverbial sentences express the condi- 
tion under which the action or idea of the principal 
clause, which is called the consequence, is possible. 
They are introduced by if, unless, so, in case, provided 
that, and some other adverbial expressions of like im- 
port ; as, if you say this, you err. 

Q. What is the condition sometimes contained in? 

2. The condition is sometimes contained in a question, 
a command, or a participle; as, "is any one meriy 
(i. e. if one is merry), let him sing psalms " ; prove that 
to me (i. e. if you will prove), and I will be satisfied ; 
living (i. e. if you live) in peace with God and man, you 
will die in peace. 

Q. When is if omitted ? 

3. The particle if is often omitted, especially when, 
for the sake of emphasis, had and were are placed first 
in their sentences; as, had you (i. e. if you had) told 
me this, I would have called upon him ; were I to say 
this, I should not tell the truth. 

Rem. On the use of had for would have, see ^29, Rem. 4, 
and on the use of the subjunctive in conditional clauses, see 
§ 40. III. 3, and Rem. 3. 

V. Concessive Adverbial Sentences. 
Q. What do concessive adverbial sentences express ? 
1. Concessive adverbial sentences express a conces- 



180 SYNTAX. 

sion or admission of some obstacle to the action or idea 
of the predicate, which, however, does not prevent its 
taking place. 

Q. What are they introduced by ? 

2. They are introduced by though^ although, even if, 
however, notwithstanding ; as, a good man submits pa- 
tiently to suffering, although it be severe, 

Q. What generally .stands in the principal clause 1 

3. Yet, nevertheless, still, or some other adversative 
conjunction, generally stands in the principal clause, but 
not always. 

Rem. Whoever and whatever often have a concessive force ; 
as, ivhoever he may be, he is still responsible to the laws. 

VI. Adverbial Sentences of Comparison. 

Q. What is the nature of the comparison in comparative sen- 
tences ? 

1. Adverbial sentences of comparison compare the 
subject of the principal clause with that of the subordi- 
nate clause, in respect either to manner or quantity, 

Q. What are modal adverbial sentences introduced by 1 

2. Modal adverbial sentences of comparison (i. e. 
those expressing a comparison in manner) are introduced 
by as — so {thus), to denote a real comparison, and as if, 
as it were, just as if, and the like, to denote an assumed 
comparison ; as, as the laws control the magistrate, so 
the magistrate controls the people ; an honest man (so) 
speaks as he thinks ; it is folly to offer sacrifices to evil 
spirits, as if they could be propitiated by us. 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 181 

Rem. 1. So (thus) is generally omitted when its clause 

stands before that with as. 

t 

Q. What quantitive adverbial sentences ? 

3. Quantitive adverbial sentences of comparison are 
introduced by than after a comparative, or other word 
denoting difference^ by the — the {so much the) with a 
comparative in each clause, or by as {so after a nega- 
tive) — a5, like — ZiAre, to denote equality; as, certain 
peace is better than expected victory ; the more a man 
has, the more he wants ; this is as good as that ; this is 
not so good as that ; like priest, like people. 

Q. What happens, when a noun or verb would regularly be re- 
peated ? 

Rem. 2, When a noun or verb would regularly be repeated 
in the second member of a comparison , that is substituted for 
the noun, and some form of the verb to be or to do for the reg- 
ular verb ; as, the song of the nightingale is more various 
than that (i e. the song) of the thrush; he examined me closer 
than my judges had done (i. e. had examined me). 

Q. When is for^ or too —foi\ used ? 

Rem. 3. When any thing is considered greater or smaller 
than it should be, considering the measure of another object, 
which it is brought into comparison with, the want of con- 
formity between them is commonly expressed by /or, or too — 
for; as, this is a good exercise for a boy ; the task is too la- 
borious/or a youth ; it is too late /or me to begin Greek. 

General Rule. Subordinate conjunctions and con- 
junctive adverbs connect sentences, one of which is de- 
pendent upon the other. 



182 SYNTAX. 

Exercise XXXVII. 

Point out and classify the adverbial sentences in these examples, 
according to the preceding principles. 

1. I fell in with the man where the two ways meet. 
— Your friend left here after noon. — I know not whence 
the man came, nor whither he was going. — The smoke 
proceeded thence, whence you see those boys departing. 

— The stage passed here before dark. — Whilst life re- 
mains, we may prepare for another world. — I will re- 
main here till the stage arrives. — The more you study, 
the more you will learn. — Occupy till I come. — As 
soon as the stage arrives, the mail is delivered. — Noth- 
ing is so sweet as friendship. — The cure is worse than 
the disease. — Like priest, like people. — Since you de- 
sire a reason, I will give it. — I speak because I believe. 

— Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. — If you 
will pay me, I will labor for you. — I never should have 
undertaken the task, unless you had encouraged me to 
doit. 

Model. — I fell in with the man where the two ways 
meet. Where the two ways meet is a subordinate adver- 
bial sentence, expressing a local limitation to the predi- 
cate {fell in with) of the principal sentence. Where 
implies there in the principal clause. The particular 
words may be parsed according to previous rules. 

Form two or more adverbial sentences to each of these examples. 

2. Student, blacksmith, merchant, mechanic, mason, 
ox, sheep, bird, girl, dog, farmer. 

Model. — Student. The student sat where he was 
directed to (local adverbial) ; this student is as far ad- 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 18S 

vanced as that (quantitive comparative) ; a good student 
studies, because he loves it (causal). 

§ 53. Interrogative Sentences. 

Q. Of what two kinds are questions ? 

1. Questions are either independent (direct) ; as, wast 
thou at school yesterday ? or dependent upon another 
sentence or word going before (indirect) ; as, I do not 
know ivJiether thou wast at school yesterday. 

Q. What is said of the grammatical character of direct and in- 
direct questions ? 

2. Questions, whether direct or indirect, are not ne- 
cessarily confined to any particular class of sentences, 
but indirect questions, whatever the grammatical form of 
their sentences, are dependent upon the preceding verb, 
and may generally be considered as forming an objec- 
tive limitation to it ; as, tell me whether you was at 
school or not, 

Q. What are questions introduced by ? 

3. Questions asked for information, both direct and 
indirect, are introduced by interrogative pronouns and 
relative adverbs ; as, who^ which^ what, how great, where, 
luhence, whether, when, how, why, &;c. ; as, why are you 
here ? I know not why you are here. But questions 
asked merely for assent or dissent are asked by placing 
the verb first ; as, sayest thou this ? is it so ? 

Q. What is said of the infinitive ? 

Rem. 1. The infinitive often follows these interrogative 
words, in place of the indirect question, where the query re- 



184 SYNTAX. 

lates to the subject of the principal clause ; as, I know not 
what to do^ I am at a loss how to act (what I shall do, how J 
shall act). 

Q. What is said of disjunctive questions ? 

4. In indirect disjunctive questions, in which one 
member excludes the other, the first member is intro- 
duced by whether (whether not)^ and the second by or 
{or not^ or no) ; as, the question is whether there is one 
or many worlds. In direct disjunctive questions, whether 
is not used in the first clause ; as, is the mind mortal or 
immortal ? 

Q. How are answers to questions made ? 

5. Questions asked for mere assent or denial are 
answered by yes^ no^ just so, by no means^ not at all^ 
truly ^ nay^ nay rather^ <fec. ; or, when the inquiry is 
for some particular thing, by giving the name of a 
thing ; as, what is that r an awl, 

Q. How are negative and affirmative questions asked respec- 
tively? 

Rem. 2. Questions implying a negative are asked without 
a negative, and those implying an affirmative with a negative ; 
as, can this be so? (no) ; shall not the Judge of all the earth 
do right? (yes). 

Exercise XXXTIII. 

Point out the direct and indirect questions. Classify the differ^ 
ent kinds of questions. 

1. Is memory wholly under our control ? — For how 
much do you sell corn per bushel ? — Do you know 
what the price of corn is } — Can you tell me how far 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 185 

it is to Boston ? — How far is it to Boston ? — Is your 
friend rich or poor ? — Do you know whether your 
friend is rich or not ? 

Model. — Is memory wholly under our control ? This 
is a direct question, because it is complete in itself, and 
not dependent on any word or sentence going before. 

Form one or more direct and indirect questions with each of 
these examples. 

2. Book, wheat, horse, Salem, soul, virtue, wood, 
rain, marble, rice, sugar, tea. 

Model. — Book. Where is the book ? how came you 
by the book ? do you know who has got the book ? 

Exercise XXXIX. (on Coordinate and Subordinate 

Sentences in general.) 

Point out the coordinate and subordinate sentences, and classify 
and eocplain them according to the foregoing principles. 

1. The government demanded that restitution should 
be made to the injured citizens. — Cicero and Hortensius 
were rival orators. — It has always been felt, that right- 
eousness exalts a nation. — It is either sense, or non- 
sense. — The friend who journeyed with you has re- 
turned home. — The man of whom I spoke yesterday 
has been arrested on suspicion of murder. — Time and 
tide wait for no man. — Byzantium stood where Constan- 
tinople stands. — Life is short, but art is long. — I will 
be with you before Christmas. — As long as you prosper, 
you will not want friends. — When prosperity leaves 
you, friends forsake you. — The powder is good, for I 
have tested it. — The man is poor, do not therefore press 



186 SYNTAX. 

him for the money. — Although I am poor, I am deter- 
mined to pay my debts. — Who is so destitute as to 
have no friend ? — If the righteous scarcely be saved, 
where shall the ungodly and the sinner appear ? — Not 
the righteous, but sinners, are called to repentance. — 
The happiness of the poor man is of as much importance 
as that of the rich. — The sun is greater than the moon. 
— Marius and Sylla were rivals. — The more exalted 
one's condition, the greater the danger of falling. 

Model. — The government demanded that restitution 
should he made to the injured citizens. This is a com- 
pound substantive subordinate sentence, the substantive 
clause beginning with that forming an objective limita- 
tion to the predicate (demanded) of the principal clause. 

Change these sentences into simple or coordinate sentences, 

2. When the spring comes, the flowers bloom. — The 
boy, who was keeping the sheep, has been devoured by 
wolves. — I saw the man who escaped from jail. — It 
was announced that General Taylor had gained another 
victory over the Mexicans. — If you will return my book, 
I will return yours. — Although I am poor, still I am de- 
termined to pay my debts. — Rum is stronger than a 
giant. — The poor man is as good as the rich one. — I 
have not seen my brother since last year. 

Model. — When the spring comes^ the flowers bloom^ 
= the spring comes and the flowers bloom. 



DISCOURSE. 187 

CHAPTER III. 
DISCOURSE. 

§ 54. Direct and Indirect Discourse. 

Q. What is Discourse ? 

1. Discourse is the expression of a connected series 
of thoughts on any subject ; or it is a certain style or 
mode of exhibiting thought. Direct and indirect dis- 
course are only different modes of quoting or appropri- 
ating the thoughts or words of another. 

Q. What is a general account of the nature of direct and indi- 
rect discourse ? 

2. When one's thoughts or words, or general truths 
current among men, are barely stated or quoted by a 
writer or speaker, in their original form, without being 
merged in the present narrative or statement, the form 
of presentation is called the direct discourse; as* the 
messenger announced. The peace is concluded ; I assert, 
The soul is immortal. But when, in a similar case, the 
thought is made dependent upon some verb of perceiving 
or communicating., and is barely reported in substance, 
the mode of representation is called the oblique diS' 
course ; as, the messenger announced, that peace was 
concluded ; I asserted, that the soul is immortal. 

Q. What is said of the grammatical character of direct and in- 
direct discourse '? 

3. As, then, direct and indirect discourse are only 
different modes of exhibiting the thoughts or words of 



188 SYNTAX. 

another, they are not necessarily expressed by any par- 
ticular class of sentences, but may employ, indifferently, 
all classes. But as in both cases a writer or speaker re- 
fers to something said or thought, &c., by himself or 
some other one, — in the one case quoting it inde- 
pendently, and in the other barely reporting it, in sub- 
stance, — both direct and indirect discourse must ex- 
press an objective limitation to verbs of perception and 
cominunication, 

Q. What changes are required in sentences passing from direct 
to indirect discourse ? 

4. All independent sentences, both simple and coor- 
dinate, and the principal clauses of subordinate senten- 
ces, when put into the form of the indirect discourse, 
are either expressed by the infinitive mode^ or by that 
and the finite verb, in the tense required by that of 
the verb upon which the whole depends. But subordi- 
nate clauses (also imperatives), when thrown into tbe 
form of indirect discourse, besides changing their tense, 
as in independent clauses, are expressed in the potential 
mode. Thus, suppose a general to say, " The battle is 
lost " ; one referring to this would say, in direct dis- 
course. The general said, " The battle is lost " ; in indi- 
rect discourse, The general said, that the battle was 
lost. Or if a man, on his death- bed, says to his ser- 
vant, " I will make you my heir," one in referring to it 
would say, in direct discourse, Mr. — , on his death- 
bed, said to his servant, " I will make you my heir " ; in 
indirect discourse, that he ivould make him his heir. 



DISCOURSE. 189 

Exercise Xli. 

Point out the direct and the indirect forms of discourse, and 
give the reasons in each case. 

1. The Scriptures declare, God is love. — The Scrip- 
tures declare God to be love. — The Scriptures declare, 
that God is love. — Cicero said, I will not be wanting to 
the Senate and people. — Cicero said, that he would not 
be wanting to the Senate and people. — The men as- 
serted, It is no matter for us to decide upon. — The men 
asserted, that it was no matter for them to decide upon. 
— They asserted it to be no matter to be decided upon 
by them. — Philosophers teach. The soul is immortal. — 
Philosophers teach, that the soul is immortal. 

Model. — The Scriptures declare^ God is love. Here 
the sentence God is love is merely quoted as a state- 
ment or truth of Scripture, without changing it at all in 
order to merge it in the present statement, and conse- 
quently is in the direct discourse. In the two following 
examples, it is in the indirect discourse. 

Make sentences in both the direct and the indirect form to each 
of these examples. 

2. The shoemaker, carpenter, grocer, Daniel Web- 
ster, Washington, moralist. 

Model. — The shoemaker. The shoemaker stated, 
The leather is good ; the shoemaker stated, that the 
leather was good ; the shoemaker stated the leather to 
be good. 



190 SYNTAX. 

§ 55. Forms of Sentences in Discourse. 
Q. Why does a writer employ different kinds of sentences ? 

1. As a speaker, or writer, in treating of any subject 
at length, is called upon to express innumerable rela- 
tions and shades of thought, he necessarily employs every 
species of sentence of which the language is capable, 
with all their varying modifications and combinations. 

Q. How are sentences classified according to meaning ? 

2. Sentences classified according to their meaning 
are either declarative (stating something either as a fact 
or conception), imperative (commanding something), 
interrogative (asking some question), or exclamatory 
(expressing some emotion at something) ; as, the sun 
rises and shines ; or, when the sun rises, he shines ; 
arise, and shine ! when will you arise and shine ? how 
the sun shines ! v 

Q. How according to form 1 

3. But classified according to their form^ sentences 
are either simple or compound, as shown in the previous 
chapters. 

Q. In what ways may a writer use simple and compound sen- 
tences ? 

4. Hence, while a speaker or writer must, in all cases, 
use either simple or compound sentences, he may use 
them in making declarations^ in commands^ in questions^ 
or in exclamations, 

Q. What are the different kinds of limitations expressed by at- 
tributes and objects ? 

5. So, too, while all the limitations of the subject and 



DISCOURSE. 191 

' the predicate, whether in simple or compound sentences, 
I are either attributes or objects^ an attributive may ex- 
press any of the innumerable qualities of the subject 
represented by a noun, or its individuality^ its au- 
thor^ possessor, material., source, or relation to the 
speaker ; and an object may be either direct or indirect, 
substantive, adverbial, or verbal, and express the rela- 
tions of place, time, cause, manner, condition, conces- 
sion, comparison, consequence, and result, 

Q. When is an attribute or object simple, when complex, when 
compound, and when complex and compound ? 

6. Both an attribute and an object, also, may be either 
simple, complex, compound, or complex and compound at 
the same time ; — simple, when consisting of a single 
word, or of a noun or infinitive with a preposition ; com- 
plex, when modified by another attributive or modal ad- 
verb, joined to it without a conjunction ; compound, 
when containing two or more attributes or objects, either 
connected by conjunctions, or expressing independent 
qualities or relations ; complex and compound, at the 
same time, when they express both the complex and the 
compound relation, or when the terms of which they 
are composed are united, some of them subordinately, 
and some of them codrdinately (§ 43. 5). Thus : — 

Q. What is an example of each form of the attribute and ob- 
ject? 

Attribute : good man ; Alexander, 

-.CI- 1 I kins; nidin of talents, 

1) Simple, < ^, . , , . 

* Object : struck htm ; struck against 

it ; struck violently ; we eat to live. 



192 



SYNTAX. 



3) Compound,^ 



Attribute : a good man ; some good 
men ; a very good man ; Alexander, 
king of Macedonia ; man of great 
2) Complex, ^ talents. 

Object : struck his hoop ; struck the 
dog with long ears ; struck the man ; 
struck a great man. 

Attribute : great and good man ; Al- 
exander, king and general ; man of 
talents and genius. 

Object : struck him violently ; struck 
against it violently ; struck him with 
a stick ; struck him in the eye ; 
struck him running ; we eat food to 
live* 

Attribute : a great and good man ; 
some great and good man ; Wash- 
ington, the great and illustrious 
4) Complex leader of our armies. 

and \ Object : struck his hoop violently ; 

Compound, struck a little dog in the eye vio- 

lently^ with a stick ; shot a cackling 
goose flying (or on the wing) ; we 
eat nourishing food to live, 

Q. When the subject, object, or predicate is itself compound, 
what four varieties of form arise, and what is an example of each ? 

7. At the same time, both the subject (or object) and 
predicate of a sentence may be compound themselves, 
and limited in each of the four ways named above ; as, 
Demosthenes and Ccesar ; he struck and kicked. Thus 
we have : — 



DISCOURSE, 193 

1) Simple compound subject or predicate (the limita- 
tion simple^ the principal element compound) : — learned 
men and women (subject or object) ; the horse reared 
and struck the boy. 

2) Complex compound subject or predicate : — a good 
Christian and a good citizen ; the horse reared and 
struck the little boy very violently. 

3) Double compound subject or predicate : — learn- 
ed and illustrious men^ and sympathizing and heroic 
women ; the horse reared and struck the boy suddenly 
and violently. 

4) Double complex and compound subject or predi- 
cate : — a great and good man., and a kind and virtuous 
citizen ; the horse reared and struck the boy very sud- 
denly and violently. 

Q. What relations are expressed by subordinate sentences ? 

8. Again, while every species of sentence and clause, 
whether simple or compound, coordinate or subordinate, 
principal or dependent, may be modified in these various 
ways, subordinate clauses themselves express the same 
variety of attributive and objective limitations to the prin- 
cipal clause, as single words do in the simple sentence. 

Q. What modifications may any one sentence employ ? 

9. These various modifications enable a skilful writer 
to express all the varying shades, conditions, and circum- 
stances of the most subtile and complicated thoughts. 
No single sentence, perhaps, however involved, could 
employ all possible modifications, but eveiy sentence 

13 



194 SYNTAX. 

may employ just so many as are necessary to the full 
expression of the thought in the shape intended. 

Q. What is a period ? 

10. A compound subordinate sentence (or coordinate, 
when its members are connected by both — and^ &;c.) 
is called a period^ and when one or more of the clauses 
of a subordinate sentence is enlarged by the addition 
of another clause, a compound period ; as, both Soc- 
rates and Plato were distinguished philosophers (simple 
coordinate period) ; every thing reminds us that life is 
short (simple subordinate) ; every thing which we see 
around us reminds us that life is short, or, every thing 
which we see around us reminds us that life, which we 
hold on to by so brittle a thready is short (compound 
period). 

Q. What is the compact, and what the loose style ? 

11. Where compound periods prevail, and especially 
when the different clauses, by the use of correlative 
words, are somewhat artificially balanced one against 
the other, or included one within the other, so that the 
sense is generally suspended till you reach the end of 
the sentence, the style is called periodic or compact; 
but where ideas are less closely bound together, being 
either joined by simple connectives, or by none at all, 
the style is said to be loose ; as, where the carcass is, 
there will the eagles be gathered together (compact) ; 
let your moderation be known unto all men ; the Lord is 
at hand ( loose ) . 



DISCOURSE. 195 

Exercise XLI. 

Classify and analyze these sentences, and parse the separate 
words. 

1. I have seen nobody since 1 returned. — Which 
of the three candidates was rejected? — The Gospel, 
wherever preached in its purity, will have a salutary 
influence upon some. — How fleeting is life ! — The man 
on whom you imposed, and whom you betrayed, is loud 
in his execrations against you. — The law of Flaccus, 
though it was pretended to be made by the people, was 
utterly detested by them. — Csesar was now upon his sec- 
ond expedition into Britain, which raised much talk and 
expectation at Rome, and gave Cicero much concern for 
the safety of his brother, who, as one of Csesar's lieuten- 
ants, was to bear a considerable part in it. — Is every 
rich fool to hold his head higher than his neighbour ? — 
A poet or orator never existed, who thought any one 
preferable to himself. — No occasion can exist for new 
measures, when there is nothing new in the case. — To 
see a young consul, the scholar, as it were, of my disci- 
pline, flourishing in the midst of applause, will be glori- 
ous to me. — Caesar entered the city with the most 
splendid triumph that Rome had ever seen ; but the 
people considered it a triumph over themselves, pur- 
chased by the loss of liberty. — Cornwall elects as many 
members as Scotland, but does Parliament take better 
care of Cornwall than of Scotland ? — Child, bring me 
that book of poems which lies by your side. — One can- 
not help pausing for a while, to reflect on the great idea 
which these facts imprint on the character and dignity 



196 SYNTAX. 

of Cicero ; it were otherwise impossible that a man nat- 
urally shrewd and sensible could have satisfied himself 
with palpable sophistry, which has not even the grace 
of fallacy to recommend it. — If you take away the 
waters from your river, it is no river, but a den or dry 
ditch ; if you take away the banks, it is a pool, or lake, 
or flood. 

Model. — 1 have seen nobody since I returned. This 
is a compound subordinate sentence, in which the prin- 
cipal clause has I for its subject, have seen for its gram- 
matical predicate, and nohody^ together with the tempo- 
ral subordinate clause since I returned^ for its com- 
pound object. 7 is a personal pronoun, of the first per- 
son singular, nominative case to have seen^ &c. 

Express these ideas in shorter or less involved sentences. 

2. When the sun had arisen and dispersed the mist, 
which had spread itself over the earth during the night, 
the ground was seen to be strown with dead bodies. — 
On the approach of the enemy, a battle ensued, near the 
camp, on the narrow tongue of land between two rivers, 
which has been called the Battle of the Forks. — Yester- 
day, as I was walking in the woods, near a decayed tree 
which lies by the stream, a wolf sprang from the thicket, 
and moved slowly off over the hill. — If you look about 
you, and consider the lives of others, as well as your 
own ; if you think how few are born with honor, and 
how many die without name or children ; how little 
beauty we see, and how few friends we hear of; how 
many diseases, and how much poverty, there is in the 
world ; you will fall down upon your knees, and, in- 



DISCOURSE. 197 

Stead of repining at one affliction, will admire so many 
blessings, which you have received from the hand of 
God. 

Model. — The first example, changed, becomes, — 
The sun arose and dispersed the mist ; and the ground, 
which had been enveloped in it by night, was seen to 
be strown with dead bodies. 

§ 56. Different Forms of expressing the same 
Idea. 

Q. What is the first way by which the same idea may be ex- 
pressed by different forms ? 

1. The same idea may be expressed, as has already 
been seen, by subordinate, coordinate, or simple sen- 
tences ; the only difference being that the idea is ex- 
pressed more compactly, and often more forcibly, by 
the subordinate than by the coordinate construction ; as, 
when night comes on, the stars appear, = night comes 
on and the stars appear, = on the approach of night, the 
stars appear. 

Q. How does the coordinate construction differ from the subor- 
dinate ? 

Rem. 1. The coordinate construction is less artificial, and 
more common in the earlier writers of a language than in 
those of later date. 

Q. What is the second way of expressing the same idea differ- 
ently? 

2. The sense of a subordinate clause introduced by 
wMle^ as^ when^ if^ because^ since^ although^ or a rela^ 
tive^ may often be expressed by a participle or adjec- 



198 SYNTAX. 

tive ; as, when the enemy had crossed the river, they 
pitched their camp, = the enemy, having crossed the 
river, pitched their camp. 

Q. What is the third? 

3. The same idea, with but a shght shade of differ- 
ence, may be expressed, in many cases, by the infini- 
tive, and by a subordinate sentence with that ; as, Csesar 
directed his soldiers to fortify the camp^ = Csesar di- 
rected that his soldiers should fortify the camp 

Q. What is the fourth ? 

4. The same idea may be expressed by the active 
and passive construction ; as, Romulus founded Rome, 
= Rome was founded by Romulus. 

Q. What is the fifth? 

5. The same idea may be expressed without a nega- 
tive, and by a double negative ; as, nor was the king 
unacquainted with his designs, = the king was acquainted 
with his designs. 

Q. What is the sixth ? 

6. The same idea may be expressed by a positive sen- 
tence and a negative question, or by a negative sen- 
tence and a positive question ; as, shall not the judge of 
all the earth do right ? = the judge of all the earth will 
do right ; is this so ? = this is not so. 

Q. Is the idea precisely the same in these equivalent expres- 
sions ? 

Rem. 2. In these and many other equivalent expressions, 
as they are called, which the language presents, the idea is 
substantially the same, but it does not follow that they may be 



DISCOURSE. 199 

used indifferently in every connection. One form will best 
suit one connection, and another another. But such corre- 
spondences are worthy of being traced, for the insight which 
they give into the structure of the language. 



Exercise XLiII. 

Eocpress each of these sentences hy its equivalent forms. 

The night comes on and the stars appear. — When 
the sun shines, the grass grows. — Having taken our 
hats, we walked out of the house. — After dinner we be- 
took ourselves to the fields. — The farmer directed his 
men to get in the hay. — Washington commanded our 
armies during the Revolution. — The boy opens his book. 
— The general was not unacquainted with the designs of 
the enemy. — Am I not master of my own house ? 

Model. — The night comes on and the stars appear^ 
= when the night comes on the stars appear. 

^ 5*7. Arrangement of Words and Sentences. 
Q. What is the general structure of the English language ? 

1. The general structure of the English language is 
logical rather than rhetorical, i. e. the words are gener- 
ally arranged in the order of thought rather than of 
feeling, 

Q. What the common order of words ? 

2. According to this principle, the subject stands first, 
the predicate next, and the object last ; as, the laborer 
felled a tree. 



200 SYNTAX. 

Q. What is the position of an attribute ? 

3. When the subject (or object, or any noun) is mod- 
ified by the addition of attributives, the adjective, posses- 
sive case, or pronoun stands immediately before it, and 
the noun in apposition, or governed by a preposition, 
after it ; as, good man, the good man, that good man, 
John^s hat ; the man of genius^ the man in the moon^ 
Victoria, the queen of England, 

Q. What is the order of objective hmitations ? 

4. When the predicate is modified by several objec- 
tive limitations, the personal object (if used and not gov- 
erned by a preposition) stands first after the verb, and 
the object denoting a thing next, then the adverb, then 
the adverbial phrase denoting time or place (if any be 
required), and then the cause or instrument ; as, the 
laborer felled a tree ; the laborer felled a tree handsome^ 
ly ; the laborer felled a tree handsomely in the wood (or 
in the spring) ; the laborer felled a tree handsomely in 
the spring with an axe, 

Q. What is said of the circumstances of time and place ? 

Rem. 1. When the circumstances of time and place are 
both expressed, one, and sometimes both, if there are a good 
many other limiting circumstances, may be best disposed of by 
expressing them in the first part of the sentence, either before 
or after the subject ; as, the laborer, in the spring, felled a 
tree handsomely, in the wood, with an axe, 

Q. What is the position of not and other modal adverbs ? 

5. The negative not regularly stands immediately be- 
fore the word to be rendered negative, but other modal 
adverbs stand in such part of the sentence as the sense 



DISCOURSE. 201 

requires, often at the commencement ; as, I will not 
come ; possibly it may be so ; this, surely^ is a mystery. 

Q. What is the position of intensive adverbs 1 

6. Intensive adverbs are placed immediately before 
the verb, adjective, or adverb which they qualify ; as, 
quite too many men neglect their families ; quite a num- 
ber were present ; by greatness I mean, not only the 
bulk of any single object, but the largeness of the whole 
view ; the only true God (not, the alone God, as Chal- 
mers has it). 

Q. What is the position of predicative adjectives ? 

7. Adjectives used in a predicative, instead of an at- 
tributive sense, regularly stand after their nouns, or in 
the predicate after a verb expressed ; as, woman alone 
is helpless and unprotected ; the three first presented 
themselves ; the English came firsts and then the 
French ; by greatness I do not mean the bulk of any 
single object alone (not only^ as Mr. Blair has it), but 
the largeness of the whole view. ( Only is either an at- 
tributive adjective, or an intensive adverb, and in either 
case stands before its word.) 

Q. What is often the effect of emphasis on the position of 
words ? 

8. But for the sake of emphasis^ or rhetorical effect, 
the object is sometimes placed first in the sentence, and 
the subject, or, of several subjects, the most important 
one, is placed last, which is especially the case in the 
impersonal construction with it^ and after there. Thus 
we have : " silver and gold I have none " ; " it is 7, be 
Kiot afraid " ; " there was a man sent from God." 



202 SYNTAX. 

Rem. 2, So, for the sake of emphasis, the predicative ad- 
jective is sometimes placed first; as, '■'great is Diana of the 
Ephesians " ; ''' Messed is he that cometh in the name of the 
Lord." 

Q. What is the order of words in interrogative sentences ? 

9. In interrogative sentences, the interrogative pro- 
noun or adverb (when any is employed) is placed first, 
the verb or the auxiliary part of it next, then the subject, 
and the other predicative or objective words at the end ; 
as, sayest thou this of thyself } what think ye of Christ } 

Q. In what other cases is the order of the words inverted ? 

10. So, too, in commands^ and often after neither and 
nor^ and in the subordinate clause of a conditional sen- 
tence, when if is omitted, the auxiliary part of the verb 
stands first, the subject next, and the predicate and object 
last ; as, depart thou; had I been there, the child had 
not died. 

Q. What of the order of clauses in subordinate sentences ? 

11. In compound subordinate sentences, generally 
either the principal or the subordinate clause may be 
placed first, according as the idea of the one or the other 
is to be made the more prominent ; as, if he comes^ I 
will receive him, or, I will receive him^ if he comes. 

Q. What is said of the relative sentence, and the relative ? 

12. The language does not admit, to a great extent, 
of one clause being included within another (i. e. intro- 
duced between its subject and object). But the relative 
(adjective) sentence is often thus included, and some- 
times others. And, generally, the relative should be 



DISCOURSE. 203 

placed as near the noun to which it refers as possible ; 
as, thy friend, who ivas ivith me but a short thne ago^ is 
dead. 

Q. What is the reason that so little inversion is allowed in the 



Rem. 3. The reason that so little inversion is allowed in 
the language is, that, from the almost total want of case- 
endings, there is but little to indicate the relation of words, 
except their position. Thus the expression, '' John James 
struck," might mean, either that James struck John, or that 
John struck James. The meaning becomes plain only as the 
subject is placed first, and the object last. 

Rem. 4. Much more license is allowed in the arrange- 
ment of words and sentences in poetry than in prose. 

Exercise Xlilll. 

Correct the arrangement of the words in each of these examples. 

Travelled have I through a beautiful valley. — A 
church he has built. — A rose-leaf she gave me. — Out 
in the field stands a beautiful pear-tree. — With a scythe 
the laborer cuts down the dewy grass. — In the winter, 
often by night, the stars shine with surpassing bright- 
ness. — We came to our journey's end, at last, with no 
small difficulty, after much fatigue, through deep roads, 
and bad weather. — I will trust in him though he slay 
me. — The alone God knows the heart. — Often, before 
one is aware of it, when he is in a hurry, he does what 
he does not intend to. — Into this hole thrust themselves 
three Roman senators. — It is a quite spirited piece. — 
Black women's gloves for sale here. — The fruiterer 
offered for sale a tempting variety of fruits. 



204 SYNTAX. 

Model. — Travelled have I through a beautiful vallep. 
This should be thus arranged : — I have travelled through 
a beautiful valley. 

§ 58. Peculiar Usages and Constructions. 
Q. What is ellipsis, and when used ? 

1. Ellipsis. This consists in the omission of a word 
or sentence, expressing some general or subordinate 
idea, readily supplied by the mind or inferred from the 
connection, but essential to the full grammatical expres- 
sion of the thought. It occurs most frequently in dia- 
logue^ answers., exclamations., or with a possessive case ; 
as, to which the fiend (i. e. replied) ; who is it? Peter 
(= it is Peter) ; strange to tell ! = it is strange to tell ; 
at St. Paul's (i. e. church). 

Q. What is brachylogy, and when used ? 

2. Brachylogy., or the abridgment of sentences by 
omitting the common subject or predicate of one or more 
of several clauses, as being really involved in what is 
expressed. This occurs in coordinate sentences, and 
often in subordinate sentences introduced by than.^ 
though., if., as ; as, some place happiness in one thing, 
some in another (i. e. some place it in another) ; you 
say this, I that (i. e. say that) ; I love wisdom better than 
riches (i. e. better than Hove riches), &c. 

Q. What is said of the form of the verb to be supplied in 
brachylogy ? 

Rem. 1. The form of the verb to be supplied need not 
always be the same as that expressed ; as, he is greater than 



DISCOURSE. 205 

I (am). But when a past participle refers to auxiliaries in 
different clauses, these auxiliaries must always be expressed, 
unless they are such that the participle will complete each 
alike ; as, this always has been, and always ivill be, admired 
(not, " this always has, and always will, be admired," since 
there is no such form as has be admired). 

Q. What is pleonasm, and why used ? 

3. Pleonasm. This is the opposite of ellipsis and 
brachylogy. It is the introduction of a word or words 
which grammatically are superfluous. Pleonasm is gen- 
erally resorted to for the sake of perspicuity or empha- 
sis ; as, thee^ thee I invoke. 

Rem. 2. The above are called figures of speech. TYopes, 
such as metaphor, metonymy, &c., have nothing to do with the 
grammatical structure of a sentence, and hence belong to rhet- 
oric rather than grammar. 

Q. Wliat is blending of sentences ? 

4. Blending of Sentences. This is oftenest effected 
by making what is logically the subject (or object) of the 
subordinate clauses the object of the verb of the princi- 
pal clause ; as, I know thee^ who thou art (instead of " I 
know who thou art ") ; he gave them power against un- 
clean spirits, to cast them out, = he gave them power to 
cast out unclean spirits. 

Exercise XIjIT. 

Explain the peculiarity of the construction in each case, and 
refer it to its proper figure. 

m 

Me miserable ! — Begone ! — One to his farm, another 
to his merchandise. — I am older than you. — I am as 



206 SYNTAX. 

good as you. — It will answer, if well executed. — The 
arrow missed the mark, though well aimed. — Verily, 
verily, I say unto you. — Teach me the measure of my 
days, what it is, that I may know how frail I am. 

Model. — Me miserable I The figure here is ellipsis, 
since a grammatical element, not implied in any of the 
words used, is omitted, = ah me miserable ! 



§ 59. Poetic Styles (Versification). 

Q. How is poetry distinguished from prose, and of what two 
kinds is it ? 

1. Poetry is distinguished from prose, in form, by be- 
ing arranged in verses or lines, which are measured by 
a certain number of poetic feet^ or of accented and un- 
accented syllables, succeeding each other in a given 
order. When the lines are arranged in couplets, or ac- 
cording to some other combination, with words corre- 
sponding in sound at the end of them, the poetry is 
called rhyme ; but otherwise, hlank verse, 

Q. What is a poetic foot ? 

2. A foot or measure consists of a certain number of 
syllables (not necessarily all in the same word), of which 
one is accented, and the others not. 

Q. What are the principal feet used in English verse ? 

3. The principal poetic feet used in English- verse 
are the iambus^ consisting of a short syllable followed 
by a long one, which takes the accent (^ / ), the 
trochee {j_ ^), the anapest (^ ^ ^), and the dactyl 



DISCOURSE. 207 

Q. What is scanning ? 

4. When, in reading poetry, each verse is divided into 
portions corresponding to its feet, and not its words, it is 
called scanning, 

Q. What is said of diiFerent metres ? 

5. Different metres are adapted to different subjects 
and moods of mind, some being heavier and some 
lighter, some serious and some gay. Hence different 
subjects are treated in different metres, and in the 
same metre there is often an intermixture of different 
feet ; but the prevailing foot gives its name to the verse. 
Thus we have (without enumerating the minor varieties 
and combinations of verse used in English) the following 
kinds : — 

I. Iambic Verse. 

Q. Of what different combinations of feet may iambic verse 
consist, and what are specimens of each ? 

1. Verses in this measure may consist of two, three, 
four, five, six, or seven measures ; as, — 

Two Measures, 
Unheard, unknown. 
He makes his moan. 

Three Measures. 
With hollow blasts of wind, 
All on a rock reclined. 

Four Measures. 
On, on he hastened, and he drew 
My gaze of wonder as he flew. 



208 SYNTAX. 

Five Measures, 
Fond fool ! six feet of earth is all thy store, 
And he that seeks for all shall have no more. 

Six Measures, 
Ye sacred bards that to your harps' melodious strings 
Sung th' ancient heroes' deeds, the monuments of kings. 

Seven Measures, 
But one request I make of Him that sits the skies above, 
That I were freely out of debt, as I am out of love. 

Q. What may each of the above forms take, and how many 
varieties are there in all ? 

2. Each of these forms may take an additional short 
syllable, and occasionally eight measures are used in this 
kind of verse, making thirteen species of the iambic 
measure, besides various combinations of the different 
species. 

Q. What are certain measures called ? 

3. The iambic verse of four feet is called heroic 
verse, and makes what is called long metre ; of six feet, 
an Alexandrine verse ; of seven feet (commonly divided 
into two lines), common metre; while in short metre the 
first, second, and fourth lines have each three iambic 
feet, and the third, four 

II. Trochaic Verse. 

Q. Of what different combinations of feet may the trochaic 
verse consist, and what are specimens of each ? 

1. Verses of this measure may consist of two, three, 
four, five, or six measures, as in the following coup- 
lets:— 



DISCOURSE. 209 

Two Measures, 
Rich the treasure, 
Sweet the pleasure. 

Three Measures. 
Every drop we sprinkle 
Smooths away a wrinkle. 

Four Measures, 
Maids are sitting by the fountain, 
Bright the moon o'er yonder mountain. 

Five Measures, 
Narrowing in to where they sat assembled, 
Low voluptuous music winding trembled. 

Six Measures, 
6n a mountain, stretched beneath a hoary willow. 
Lay a shepherd swain, and viewed the rolling billow. 

Q. What other combinations of this measure are there ? 

2. Each of these forms may take an additional long 
syllable (there is also a form with eight feet and a sylla- 
ble), and one species is often combined with another, 
making a large variety of trochaic measures. 

ni. Anapestic Verse. 

Q. Of what different combinations of feet may anapestic verse 
consist, and what are specimens of each ? 

L Verses of this measure occur with two, three, and 
four measures ; as, — 
14 



210 SYNTAX. 

Two Measures, 
In my rage shall be seen 
The revenge of a queen. 

Three Measures, 
I have found out a gift for my fair, 
I have found where the wood-pigeons breed. 

Four Measures, 
The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold, 
And his cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold. 

Q. Of what other combinations is it capable ? 

2. Each one of these forms may take an additional 
short syllable, and they may be variously combined, one 
with another. 

IV. Dactylic Verse. 

Q. Of what combinations of feet is dactylic verse capable, and 
what are specimens of each ? 

1. Verses of this kind occur with two, three, and four 
measures; as, — 

Two Measures, 
Oft have I seen the sun. 
Fix himself at his noon. 

Three Measures, 

March to the battle-field fearlessly. 

Four Measures, 

Boys will anticipate, lavish and dissipate 

All that your busy pate hoarded with care. 



DISCOURSE, 211 

Q. What is said of the last foot, &c. ? 

2. The last foot of a dactylic verse is rarely perfect, 
but sometimes consists of two syllables, and sometimes 
of but one. So, too, the other measures often end with 
an imperfect foot. 

Q. What is said of combinations of different measures and feet ? 

3. Not only are the different species of the same 
measure often mingled with each other, but the different 
measures themselves, and the different kinds of feet, es- 
pecially in iambic verse. 

Rem. Verses of one foot, in either of the measures, are so 
rare, that no notice has been taken of them. 

Note- — The teacher, if he considers it desirable, can find exer- 
cises for drilling his pupils in scanning and discriminating the dif- 
ferent kinds of poetic measures, in any of the common collections 
of poetry, or even in their reading-books- 

§ 60. Punctuation and Use of Capitals. 
Q. What is punctuation ? 

1. Punctuation, in English, is a system of marks used 
in written discourse, in order to indicate the principal 
stops or pauses which would naturally be made by a 
correct speaker in pronouncing it. 

Q. What are the punctuation marks ? 

2, These marks are the comma (,), the semicolon (;), 
the colon (:), the interrogation point (?), the exclama- 
tion point (!), the dash ( — ), and the parenthesis ( ). 

Q. What time is denoted by each respectively ? 

Rem. The comma denotes a pause barely sufficient to 



212 SYNTAX. 

take breath ; the semicolon, a pause twice as long ; a calon, 
four times as long ; and the period, the longest pause. 



I. The Comma. 
Q. What is the first rule for the comma ? 

1. The comma is generally placed before the predi- 
cate of a simple sentence, when its subject has several 
modifying words connected with it ; as, the necessity of 
virtue to happiness, has always been admitted. But this 
rule is less observed by recent, than by older writers. 

Q, What is the second rule ? 

2. A comma is usually placed both before and after a 
qualifying or explanatory phrase, which separates a sub- 
ject, or a conjunction, from its verb ; as, the king, ap- 
proving the plan, put it into execution ; and, knowing his 
baseness, he hated and despised him. 

Rem. 1. So, generally, parenthetical words, phrases, and 
sentences are pointed off by commas. 

Q. What is the third rule ? 

3. A comma is generally placed after an adverb, or 
adverbial phrase, used at the commencement of a sen- 
tence, as a sort of introduction ; such as Jlrst, secondly, 
&;c., again, in general, indeed, besides, yes, nay, hence, 
thus, in truth, on the contrary, also, therefore, &;c. 

Rem. 2. And so generally of adverbs, when out of their 
place and not closely connected with any words, they are usu- 
ally separated by commas from the rest of the sentence ; as, 
this, however J is mere matter of opinion. 



DISCOURSE. 213 

'Q, What is the fourth rule ? 

4. A comma is generally placed between words where 
a conjunction is omitted, and even before a conjunction, 
when expressed before the last of such a series of words ; 
as, the husband, wife, and children were sold into slav- 
ery ; virtue supports in adversity, moderates in pros- 
perity. 

Rem. 3. When several subjects, thus connected, belong to 
the same verb, a comma is sometimes placed before the verb 
also, according to No. 1 ; as, poetry, music, and painting, are 
fine arts. 

q. What is the fifth rule ? 

5. The nominative case independent, the case abso- 
lute, and the infinitive absolute, are usually separated 
from th^ rest of the sentence by a comma ; as, my son, 
give me thy heart ; his father dying, he came into pos- 
session of the estate ; to confess the truth, I was much in 
fault. 

Q. What is the sixth rule ? 

6. A noun in apposition with another, and having sev- 
eral qualifying words connected with it, is separated 
from the rest of the sentence by commas ; as, Paul, an 
apostle of the Gentiles, was eminent for his zeal. But 
an unmodified noun in apposition with another, is not 
separated from it by a comma ; as, the Apostle Paul. 

Q. What is the seventh rule ? 

7. When words stand in opposition to each other, or 
with some marked variety, a comma is placed after the 
first, and sometimes (but not so frequently of late) after 



214 SYNTAX. 

the last, when there is a phrase following which depends 
upon both ; as, though deep, yet clear ; though fallen, 
great ; this tends rather to confirm, than to refute, the 
inference ; in alliance loiih^ and under the protection of 
Rome. 

Q. What is the eighth rule ? 

8. A comma is generally used between the clauses of 
comparative, relative, conditional, and the other com- 
pound subordinate sentences, unless the subordinate sen- 
tence is quite short and very closely connected with the 
principal clause (or so loosely as to require a longer 
pause) ; as, as the heart panteth after the water-brook, 
so, &c. (but, I think as you do) ; he will go, if it is pos- 
sible ; I will return, lohen you send for me, &;c. 

Rem. 4. So, also, a comma is generally used before for, 
hut, yet, therefore, and most other coordinate conjunctions, ex- 
cept the copulatives. 

Q. What is the ninth rule ? 

9. A comma is generally introduced where a verb is 
understood ; as, from law arises security ; from security, 
curiosity. 

Q. What is the tenth rule 1 

10. When a sentence or an infinitive mode is the sub- 
ject of a verb, and stands after it, it generally has a 
comma before it ; as, the most obvious remedy is, to 
withdraw from their company. 

Q. What is the eleventh rule ? 

11. A comma is inserted between words and phrases 
designed to be taken somewhat independently of each 



DISCOURSE. 215 

Other, and to make a distinct individual impression ; as, 
character, virtue, piety, all are lost; at Antioch, at Ico- 
nium, at Lystra. 

Rem. 5. The comma is used in many other cases which 
cannot well be described, but must be determined by a sense 
of what correct reading or speaking would require. 

II. The Colon and Semicolon. 

r, Q. What is the first rule for the semicolon 1 

1. As the semicolon requires a longer pause than the 
comma, it is used betw^een sentences less closely con- 
nected than those separated by the comma, so that they 
make a complete sense, each by itself; as, from law 
arises security ; from security, curiosity ; from curiosity, 
knowledge. 

Q. What is the second rale ? 

2. In general, a semicolon may be used in nearly 
every place where a comma may be used, whenever, 
from any peculiarity in the structure of the sentence, or 
turn of the thought, a somewhat longer pause is required 
than is indicated by the comma. 

Q. What is the rale for the colon ? 

3. The colon is chiefly used at the end of sentences 
making a complete sense, before a clause giving an ex- 
planation, illustration, or equivalent idea, without a con- 
necting conjunction; as, he was interrupted by these 
words : How dare you praise a rebel ! Study to acquire 
a habit of thinking : no habit is more important. The 
faults opposed to the sublime are chiefly two : the frigid 
and the bombastic. 



216 SYNTAX. 

Q. Where is the dash used for the colon 1 

Rem. As a colon generally implies that what follows is in 
some sense an equivalent to what precedes, it is commonly 
used before specifications, and often before quotations, exam- 
ples, &c. But in all but the first case, the comma is more 
frequently used ; also the dash is generally used in abrupt ex- 
planations, and often before quotations. 

III. The Dash and Parenthesis. 
Q. What is the rule for the dash ? 

1. The dash is the sign of a sudden suspension or 
transition of thought, and is used before abrupt explana- 
tions, fanciful turns and stops of thought, and often be- 
fore direct quotations, and before and after short and 
sharp parenthetical ideas ; as, "A man of letters has two 
natures, — one a book nature, the other a human na- 
ture." " Lambs are beautiful. Yes, lambs are beauti- 
ful, _ boiled ! " 

Q. What is the rule for the parenthesis ? 

2. The parenthesis is used to include sentences, 
thrown in by way of explanation or modification of other 
ideas, without, however, affecting the construction of the 
other sentences in the connection ; as, the night (it was 
the middle of summer) was fair and calm. 

Q. What is the use of the comma with the dash and parenthe- 
sis '? 

Rem. The dash should generally have a comma before it, 
and the parenthesis, either before or after it (but better, out- 
side of the parenthetical marks) , according as the parentheti- 
cal clause is more closely connected in sense with what pre- 
cedes or what follows it. 



DISCOURSE. 217 

IV. The Period, Interrogation, and Exclamation 
Points. 

Q. What is the rule for the period ? 

1. The period is used at the end of sentences, where 
the sense is so complete, and so far independent of what 
follows, as to allow the voice to be entirely suspended, 
as if nothing further was to be pronounced. 

Q. What is the rule for the interrogation point ? 

2. The interrogation point is used at the end of a di- 
rect question, or an indirect question quoted in the direct 
form ; as. Who is there ? He asked, Who is there } but, 
I know not who is there, 

Q. What is the rule for the exclamation point ? 

3. The exclamation point is used after sudden expres- 
sions of surprise, joy, grief, impatience, &;c. ; as, Death ! 
great proprietor of all ! God of heaven ! had they not a 
right to complain ! O ! how our hearts were beating ! 
Hold ! you have cut me out full employment. 

Q. What happens after some interjections ? 

Rem. 1. After O, and sometimes after other interjections 
which are followed hy words or phrases, simply a comma (or 
no point at all) is placed, with an exclamation point at the end 
of the sentence or phrase, especially when there is a close con- 
nection between the interjection and what follows it ; as, ah 
me ! O Jove supreme ! O, how I tremble with disgust ! 

Rem. 2. When an interrogative sentence has an exclama- 
tory force, it should be followed by an exclamation, and not an 
interrogation point ; as, God of heaven ! had they not a right 
to complain ! 



218 SYNTAX. 

Rem. 3. The other marks used in discourse, such as the 
paragraph, asterisk, &c., having no connection with the struc- 
ture of the language, do not belong to grammar. 

Note. — The pupil may find exercises, both in correct and in- 
correct punctuation, in any of his reading-books. 



Use of Capital Letters. 
Capitals are used : — 

Q. What are the nine rules for the use of capitals ? 

1. As the first letter of every line of poetry. 

2. As the first letter after a period ; also after the ex- 
clamation point, where the sentence is not very closely 
connected with the preceding. 

3. After an interrogation point, where the sentence 
contains an answer to the preceding question, or is but 
slightly connected with it. 

4. Often after a colon or comma, where the words of 
another are quoted directly, especially where a complete 
sentence is quoted. 

5. At the beginning of names of persons, people, and 
countries, as well as the adjectives derived from them ; 
as, George, Mr. Brown, Hungarians, Europe, Euro- 
peans. 

6. At the beginning of the names and appellations of 
the Deity, and some of the higher titles of honor and 
office ; as, God, Jehovah, President, Governor, Honor- 
able, &;c. 



DISCOURSE. 219 

7. At the beginning of all the principal words in the 
titles of books ; as, " Whately's Easy Lessons on Rea- 
soning." 

8. The pronoun 7, and the interjection O, are written 
in capitals. 

9. Often, too, other words, when they are to be made 
specially prominent, or when an object is personified, 
commence with a capital. 



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